Kennett, Geoffrey --- "The Constitution and Military Justice after White v Director of Military Prosecutions" [2008] FedLawRw 9; (2008) 36(2) Federal Law Review 231

^[*] Barrister, Sydney. This article is an expanded version of a paper delivered at the Public Law Weekend, Australian National University, 10 November 2007. The author thanks Benjamin O'Donnell for his comments on an advanced draft.

^[1] See the sources referred to in Richard Tracey, 'The Constitution and Military Justice' [2005] UNSWLawJl 30; (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 426, 426–8.

^[2] Ibid 426.

^[3] At least in a 'small-c' sense. Adam Smith famously made defence the first duty of government ('According to the system of natural liberty, the sovereign has only three duties to attend to ... first, the duty of protecting the society from the violence and invasion of other independent societies': The Wealth of Nations, Book IV, Chapter IX). In Re Tracey; Ex parte Ryan [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 569–70 Brennan and Toohey JJ described the defence of the Commonwealth and the several States as a 'constitutional objective'.

^[4] As in R v Bevan; Ex parte Elias [1942] HCA 12; (1942) 66 CLR 452 ('Bevan').

^[5] See eg Polyukhovich v Commonwealth [1991] HCA 32; (1991) 172 CLR 501, 608–9 (Deane J) ('War Crimes Act Case').

^[6] For example, by Tracey, above n 1; Mitchell and Voon, 'Justice at the Sharp End — Improving Australia's Military Justice System' [2005] UNSWLawJl 29; (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 396; Andrew Mitchell and Tania Voon, 'Defence of the Indefensible? Re-assessing the Constitutional Validity of Military Service Tribunals in Australia' (1999) 27 Federal Law Review 499.

^[7] [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570.

^[8] Bevan [1942] HCA 12; (1942) 66 CLR 452, 467–8 (Starke J); R v Cox; Ex parte Smith [1945] HCA 18; (1945) 71 CLR 1 ('Cox').

^[9] [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518.

^[10] Ibid 540–1 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ), 574 (Brennan and Toohey JJ), 581–3 (Deane J), 598 (Gaudron J).

^[11] Ibid 545.

^[12] [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 544.

^[13] Ibid 545.

^[14] In Solorio v United States [1987] USSC 159; 483 US 435.

^[15] Using terminology later adopted in Re Aird; Ex parte Alpert (2004) 220 CLR 308, 321 [36] ('Re Aird').

^[16] [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 568.

^[17] See Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308, 321 [36].

^[18] Ibid 571.

^[19] Ibid 579.

^[20] Ibid 583, 585–6.

^[21] Ibid 586.

^[22] Ibid 586–7.

^[23] Ibid 591.

^[24] Ibid 600–2.

^[25] Ibid 589, 590.

^[26] Ibid 547, 575.

^[27] Ibid 599.

^[28] Ibid 602–3.

^[29] [1991] HCA 29; (1991) 172 CLR 460.

^[30] Ibid 474–5.

^[31] Ibid 484.

^[32] Ibid 489.

^[33] Ibid 493.

^[34] Ibid 499.

^[35] Ibid 494–5.

^[36] Ibid 498.

^[37] Ibid 498–9.

^[38] [1994] HCA 25; (1994) 181 CLR 18.

^[39] Ibid 26.

^[40] Ibid 26–7.

^[41] Ibid 31–2.

^[42] Ibid 39.

^[43] Ibid 34.

^[44] Ibid 34–5.

^[45] (2004) 220 CLR 308.

^[46] Despite some encouragement from the Bench: see Tracey, above n 1, 436.

^[47] See (2004) 220 CLR 308, 322 [39] (McHugh J), 327 [57] (Gummow J).

^[48] Ibid 334–6.

^[49] Ibid 337 [90].

^[50] Ibid 317–8 [27] (McHugh J), 334 [82] (Kirby J).

^[51] And an offence that has come to be seen as a war crime. See Transcript of Proceedings, Re Aird (High Court of Australia, Kirby J, 3 March 2004).

^[52] See Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308, 308–9, 314–16 (McHugh J), 357–8 (Callinan and Heydon JJ).

^[53] Ibid 321 [36].

^[54] Ibid 322 [37] (citing Tracey, 'The Constitution and Military Justice' – apparently the paper published in 2005 and referred to above n 1).

^[55] Ibid 322 [38].

^[56] Ibid 323–4 [40]–[44].

^[57] Ibid 325 [49].

^[58] Ibid 329–30 [65]–[68].

^[59] Ibid 356 [156].

^[60] Ibid 314 [9].

^[61] Ibid 312-13 [5]–[6].

^[62] Ibid 337 [89].

^[63] Ibid 337 [90].

^[64] Ibid 340 [98], 343 [109]–[110], 353–4 [142]–[147].

^[65] Ibid 339–40 [96]–[100], 341 [104], 355 [152].

^[66] Ibid 356 [158].

^[67] Ibid 359 [163]–[164], and see Kirby J at 340 [98].

^[68] Mitchell and Voon, 'Defence of the Indefensible?' above n 6, 499–500.

^[69] As undertaken, over the course of eighteen pages of the Commonwealth Law Reports, by Brennan and Toohey JJ in Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; 166 CLR 518, 554–571.

^[70] See White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 579-80 [1]–[3].

^[71] See ibid 580 [2].

^[72] Ibid 630 [165].

^[73] Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 583, discussed in White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 586–7 [17].

^[74] Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 589; Re Nolan [1991] HCA 29; (1991) 172 CLR 460, 489, discussed in White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 587 [18].

^[75] White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 587-9 [19]–[23].

^[76] As seems to be acknowledged in the limited way in which Deane J framed his propositions in Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 592 and Re Nolan [1991] HCA 29; (1991) 172 CLR 460, 489.

^[77] White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 601 [68]–[69].

^[78] Ibid 601-2 [71]–[75].

^[79] Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd [1918] HCA 56; (1918) 25 CLR 434, 442 (Griffith CJ), 467–8 (Isaacs and Rich JJ).

^[80] See eg R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia [1956] HCA 10; (1956) 94 CLR 254, 270 (Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ); Chu Kheng Lim v Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs (1992) 176 CLR 1, 26–7 (Brennan, Deane and Dawson JJ), 66 (McHugh J).

^[81] A view favoured by Brennan and Toohey JJ in Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 564 but rejected by Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ in that case (at 540) and by Gummow J (and semble Gleeson CJ) in Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308, 311 [2], 327 [60].

^[82] [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 540 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ), 572 (Brennan and Toohey JJ).

^[83] See [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 646 [234] (Callinan J).

^[84] Chu Kheng Lim v Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs (1992) 176 CLR 1, 27 (Brennan, Deane and Dawson JJ), citing Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander [1918] HCA 56; (1918) 25 CLR 434, 444; R v Davison [1954] HCA 46; (1954) 90 CLR 353, 368, 383; and Polyukhovich v Commonwealth [1991] HCA 32; (1991) 172 CLR 501, 536–9, 608–10, 613–14, 632, 647, 685, 705–7, 721.

^[85] See eg Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 536–7 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ).

^[86] Cox [1945] HCA 18; (1945) 71 CLR 1, 23 (Dixon J).

^[87] Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 534 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ), 553 (Brennan and Toohey JJ), Re Tyler [1994] HCA 25; (1994) 181 CLR 18, 24 (Mason CJ and Dawson J).

^[88] Application was made in the original jurisdiction of the High Court for orders restraining either the referral of the charges to a defence force magistrate or the convening of a court martial: see White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 570, 591 [33].

^[89] See White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 605-7 [91]–[95] (Kirby J).

^[90] The amendments were effected by the Defence Legislation Amendment Act 2006 (Cth) and came into force on 1 October 2007.

^[91] Senate Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee, Parliament of Australia, The Effectiveness of Australia's Military Justice System (2005) ('Senate Committee Report').

^[92] Ibid 102 [5.95].

^[93] Discipline Act ss 188AA, 188AP.

^[94] [1942] HCA 12; (1942) 66 CLR 452.

^[95] [1942] HCA 12; (1942) 66 CLR 452, 468. Section 69 is referred to in the CLR report, but his Honour probably intended to refer to s 68.

^[96] Ibid 481.

^[97] [1945] HCA 18; (1945) 71 CLR 1.

^[98] Ibid 14, 27.

^[99] Ibid 23 (citations omitted, emphasis added).

^[100] Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 539–40 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ), 565, 573 (Brennan and Toohey JJ), 581–3 (Deane J), 598 (Gaudron J); Vasiljkovic v Commonwealth [2006] HCA 40; (2006) 228 ALR 447, 476 [114] (Gummow and Hayne JJ); White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 585 [12]–[13] (Gleeson CJ), 502 [177] (Kirby J).

^[101] Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 540–1 (emphasis added).

^[102] Ibid 573 (citing Harrison Moore, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (2^nd ed, 1910) 315–16).

^[103] Ibid 573.

^[104] Ibid 574.

^[105] Ibid 573.

^[106] Ibid 582–3 (citations omitted, emphasis added).

^[107] Ibid 598.

^[108] [2006] HCA 40; (2006) 227 CLR 614.

^[109] Ibid 649 [114].

^[110] White (2007) 231 CLR 571, 585 [12]–[13].

^[111] Ibid 583 [7] (citing Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, Melbourne, 10 March 1898, 2259 (Richard O'Connor)).

^[112] White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 583 [8].

^[113] Ibid 583–5 [9]–[13].

^[114] Ibid 586 [14].

^[115] Ibid 594–5 [44]–[49].

^[116] Ibid 595–6 [50]–[52].

^[117] Ibid 596–7 [51]–[55].

^[118] Ibid 597–8 [57].

^[119] Ibid 597–8 [57]–[58].

^[120] [1954] HCA 46; (1954) 90 CLR 353, 380–2.

^[121] And long acknowledged as such, including by Starke J in Bevan [1942] HCA 12; (1942) 66 CLR 452, 466.

^[122] White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 632 [171].

^[123] Ibid 621–5 [142].

^[124] Ibid 616–18 [123]–[132].

^[125] Ibid 621–5 [141]–[142].

^[126] Ibid 648 [238].

^[127] Ibid 650 [246].

^[128] [1942] HCA 12; (1942) 66 CLR 452, 466.

^[129] [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 649 [240], [242].

^[130] [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 598.

^[131] A-G (Vic) v Commonwealth [1935] HCA 31; (1935) 52 CLR 533, 567 (Starke J) ('Clothing Factory Case').

^[132] See Gabriёl Moens and John Trone, Lumb and Moens' The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (7^th ed, 2007) 256; Margaret White, 'The Executive and the Military' [2005] UNSWLawJl 31; (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 438, 442–4; P H Lane, Lane's Commentary on the Australian Constitution (2^nd ed, 1997) 450; George Winterton, Parliament, the Executive and the Governor-General (1983) 23, 99–101.

^[133] Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, Melbourne, 10 March 1898, 2264 (Edmund Barton).

^[134] See John Quick and Robert Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (1901) 713. The debate at the Convention suggests that there was controversy in at least one Colony as to whether the Governor could exercise power as Commander-in-Chief without ministerial advice. Despite that experience, an amendment that would have added an express reference to the Executive Council was negatived (Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, Melbourne, 10 March 1898, 2249–64). It was during this debate that two future Justices of the High Court expressed an unwillingness to spell out matters of responsible government in the Constitution, for fear of what sophisticates at Westminster might think (at 2254 (Mr Barton), 2259 (Mr O'Connor)).

^[135] Quick and Garran, above n 134, 713.

^[136] J E Richardson, 'The Executive Power of the Commonwealth' in Leslie Zines (ed), Commentaries on the Australian Constitution (1977) 50, 72; Winterton, above n 132, 99 (citing Australian Constitutional Convention, 1978, Standing Committee 'D', Opinion prepared for Standing Committee D of the Australian Constitutional Convention, K W Ryan, [36]).

^[137] Brown v West (1990) 169 CLR 195, 202 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Dawson and Toohey JJ).

^[138] Winterton, above n 132, 99–100; Geoffrey Lindell, 'The Constitutional Authority to Deploy Australian Military Forces in the Coalition War Against Iraq' (2003) 5 Constitutional Law and Policy Review 46, 47, 49; Leslie Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (4^th ed, 1997), 262–3, 269–70.

^[139] Transcript of Proceedings, White (High Court of Australia, Mr Street, Gummow J, 6 February 2007).

^[140] Bevan [1942] HCA 12; (1942) 66 CLR 452, 467–8.

^[141] Tracey, above n 1, 428.

^[142] Final Report of the Constitutional Commission (1988) 363 [5.242].

^[143] Ibid 359 [5.226].

^[144] Ibid.

^[145] Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth [1992] HCA 45; (1992) 177 CLR 106, 135 (Mason CJ).

^[146] For example, Thomas v Mowbray [2007] HCA 33; (2007) 237 ALR 194, 206 [17] (Gleeson CJ), 218 [66]–[67] (Gummow and Crennan JJ), 356 [595] (Callinan J) (and see Heydon J at 371 [651]; also Hayne J (dissenting) at 319–20 [463]); Forge v Australian Securities and Investments Commission [2006] HCA 44; (2006) 228 CLR 45, 63–4 [31]–[32] (Gleeson CJ), 82–3 [82]–[85], 84–5 [88]–[89] (Gummow, Hayne and Crennan JJ), 141–6 [256]–[267] (Heydon J).

^[147] In addition to R v Davison [1954] HCA 46; (1954) 90 CLR 353, 380–2, see Cominos v Cominos [1972] HCA 54; (1972) 127 CLR 588; R v Richards; Ex parte Fitzpatrick and Browne [1955] HCA 36; (1955) 92 CLR 157.

^[148] See the acceptance noted in White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 593 [40] (Gummow J).

^[149] But see Re Tracey [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 592 (Deane J).

^[150] Ibid 569–71 (emphasis added).

^[151] Ibid 570.

^[152] See eg White [2007] HCA 29; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 589 [21] (Gleeson CJ).