Moorhead, Matthew --- "Prohibiting the Conscription of State Officers for Commonwealth Purposes: An American Future for the State Immunity Doctrine?" [2007] FedLawRw 16; (2007) 35(3) Federal Law Review 399

^[*] BA/LLB (Hons) (ANU). I am grateful to Professor Fiona Wheeler, Amelia Simpson and the anonymous reviewers for their comments on earlier versions of this article.

^[1] Paul von Nessen, 'The Use of American Precedents by the High Court of Australia, 1901–1987' [1992] AdelLawRw 8; (1992) 14 Adelaide Law Review 181, 184.

^[2] See, eg, references to the influence of American judicial developments on Dixon J prior to his decision in Melbourne Corporation v Commonwealth [1947] HCA 26; (1947) 74 CLR 31 ('Melbourne Corporation') in Austin v Commonwealth (2003) 215 CLR 185 ('Austin'), 251 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

^[3] [1997] USSC 77; 521 US 898 (1997) ('Printz').

^[4] Evan Caminker, 'Printz, State Sovereignty, and the Limits of Formalism' [1997] Supreme Court Review 199, 199.

^[5] Andrew Gold, 'Formalism and State Sovereignty in Printz v United States: Cooperation by Consent' (1998) 22 Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 247, 258.

^[6] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 935 (1997).

^[7] Ibid.

^[8] (2003) 215 CLR 185.

^[9] Ibid 196 (citations omitted).

^[10] Ibid 268.

^[11] Ibid 269.

^[12] 5 and 6 December 2007, [2007] HCATrans 723 and 744.

^[13] [2006] FCA 1226; (2006) 153 FCR 104.

^[14] Ibid 109–14.

^[15] Zentai v Republic of Hungary [2007] FCAFC 48; (2007) 157 FCR 585 ('Zentai'), 586 (Moore J), 589 (Tamberlin J).

^[16] Ibid 586, 591.

^[17] Ibid 589.

^[18] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 935 (1997).

^[19] [1992] USSC 92; 505 US 144 (1992) ('New York').

^[20] Ibid 188.

^[21] In National League of Cities v Usery, [1976] USSC 136; 426 US 833 (1976) the Supreme Court invalidated a provision of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, 29 USC §§ 201–19 (1994). The provision imposed minimum wage and maximum hour requirements upon State and local governments. Although the provision was within the scope of the commerce power, a majority of the Court held that it violated the Tenth Amendment because it impermissibly interfered with the governmental functions of the States and their political subdivisions. National League of Cities v Usery was distinguished in subsequent decisions, and was overruled by the Supreme Court in Garcia v San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, [1985] USSC 86; 469 US 528 (1985).

^[22] The Tenth Amendment provides: 'The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.'

^[23] Pub L No 99–240, 99 Stat 1842.

^[24] New York[1992] USSC 92; , 505 US 144, 175 (1992).

^[25] Ibid 160.

^[26] [1997] USSC 77; 521 US 898 (1997).

^[27] Pub L No 103–159, 107 Stat 1536 (1993).

^[28] 18 USC §§ 921–31 (1993).

^[29] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 905 (1997).

^[30] Ibid (quoting Bowsher v Synar, [1986] USSC 181; 478 US 714, 723–4 (1986), quoting Marsh v Chambers, [1983] USSC 170; 463 US 783, 790 (1983)).

^[31] Ibid 907 (emphasis in original).

^[32] Ibid 916.

^[33] Bradford Clark, 'Translating Federalism: A Structural Approach' (1998) 66 George Washington Law Review 1161, 1188 (emphasis in original).

^[34] Printz, [1997] USSC 77; 521 US 898, 918 (1997).

^[35] Gold, above n 5, 253.

^[36] Printz, [1997] USSC 77; 521 US 898, 918 (1997).

^[37] Ibid (quoting Principality of Monaco v Mississippi, [1934] USSC 117; 292 US 313, 322 (1934)) (alteration in Printz).

^[38] Ibid.

^[39] Ibid 919 (quoting James Madison, The Federalist No 39, 245).

^[40] Ibid.

^[41] The prohibition on any involuntary reduction of a State's territory, Art. IV, § 3; the Judicial Power Clause, Art. III, § 2; the Privileges and Immunities Clause, Art. IV, § 2 (which speaks of the 'Citizens' of the States); the amendment provision, Art. V (which requires the votes of three fourths of the States to amend the Constitution); and the Guarantee Clause, Art. IV, § 4 (which guarantees a republican form of government in the States). Cited at ibid.

^[42] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 919 (1997).

^[43] Gold, above n 5, 260.

^[44] Mark Tushnet, 'Globalization and Federalism in a Post-Printz World' (2000) 36 Tulsa Law Journal 11, 31.

^[45] Printz, [1997] USSC 77; 521 US 898, 919–20 (1997).

^[46] Ibid 920 (quoting New York[1992] USSC 92; , 505 US 144, 166 (1992)).

^[47] 18 USC § 922(s)(2).

^[48] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 935 (1997).

^[49] Clark, above n 33, 1196–7 (emphasis in original)(citations omitted).

^[50] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 972 (1997).

^[51] See Western Australia v Commonwealth ('Native Title Act Case') [1995] HCA 47; (1995) 183 CLR 373, 464 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Dawson, McHugh JJ); Gerhardy v Brown [1985] HCA 11; (1985) 159 CLR 70, 121 (Brennan J).

^[52] Vicki Jackson, 'Federalism and the Uses and Limits of Law: Printz and Principle?' (1998) 111 Harvard Law Review 2180, 2195.

^[53] Ibid 2196.

^[54] Caminker, above n 4, 207 (quoting Claflin v Houseman, [1876] USSC 38; 93 US 130, 136 (1876)).

^[55] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 939 (1997).

^[56] Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd [1920] HCA 54; (1920) 28 CLR 129 ('Engineers' Case').

^[57] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 941–2 (1997) (emphasis in original).

^[58] Ibid 941.

^[59] Ibid 941–2.

^[60] New York[1992] USSC 92; , 505 US 144, 156–7 (1992).

^[61] Laurence Tribe, American Constitutional Law (3^rd ed, 2000) vol 1, 906 (emphasis in original). Professor Tribe proposes that Art IV, § 4 (the Guarantee Clause) can be read as a restraint on the federal government's power to interfere with the States' republican governments.

^[62] Jackson, above n 52, 2255.

^[63] Ibid 2257.

^[64] Roderick M Hills Jr, 'The Political Economy of Cooperative Federalism: Why State Autonomy Makes Sense and "Dual Sovereignty" Doesn't' (1998) 96 Michigan Law Review 813, 818.

^[65] Ibid.

^[66] Tribe, above n 61, 893.

^[67] Ibid.

^[68] [2000] USSC 6; 528 US 141 (2000).

^[69] 18 USC § 2721 (1994).

^[70] Reno v Condon, [2000] USSC 6; 528 US 141, 151 (2000).

^[71] Erwin Chemerinksy, Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies (2^nd ed, 2002) 318.

^[72] Ibid.

^[73] Ibid.

^[74] Reno v Condon, [2000] USSC 6; 528 US 141, 146 (2000).

^[75] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 961 (1997).

^[76] Austin (2003) 215 CLR 185, 268–9 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

^[77] Leslie Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (4^th ed, 1997) 336.

^[78] Ibid.

^[79] New South Wales v Commonwealth [2006] HCA 52; (2006) 81 ALJR 34, 88; [2006] HCA 52; 231 ALR 1, 56 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ); R v Public Vehicles Licensing Appeal Tribunal (Tas); Ex parte Australian National Airways Pty Ltd [1964] HCA 15; (1964) 113 CLR 207, 225–6.

^[80] Re Tracey; Ex parte Ryan [1989] HCA 12; (1989) 166 CLR 518, 575 (Brennan and Toohey JJ); New South Wales v Commonwealth (No 1) [1932] HCA 7; (1932) 46 CLR 155 ('Garnishee (No 1)'). The joint judgment in New South Wales v Commonwealth dismissed South Australia's argument that s 117 of the Workplace Relations Act 1996 (Cth) contravened s 106: [2006] HCA 52; (2006) 81 ALJR 34, 121–4; [2006] HCA 52; 231 ALR 1, 101–4 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ).

^[81] Re Australian Education Union; Ex parte Victoria [1995] HCA 71; (1995) 184 CLR 188 ('AEU'), 229 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ).

^[82] Native Title Act Case [1995] HCA 47; (1995) 183 CLR 373, 464 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ). See also Gerhardy v Brown [1985] HCA 11; (1985) 159 CLR 70, 121 (Brennan J).

^[83] New South Wales v Commonwealth [2006] HCA 52; (2006) 81 ALJR 34, 61, 69; [2006] HCA 52; 231 ALR 1, 20, 30.

^[84] New York, [1992] USSC 92; 505 U.S. 144, 168–9 (1992).

^[85] South Australia v Commonwealth [1942] HCA 14; (1942) 65 CLR 373 ('First Uniform Tax Case'); Victoria v Commonwealth [1957] HCA 54; (1957) 99 CLR 575 ('Second Uniform Tax Case').

^[86] Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth [1992] HCA 45; (1992) 177 CLR 106, 242 (McHugh J). See also Queensland Electricity Commission v Commonwealth [1985] HCa 56; (1985) 159 CLR 192 ('QEC'), 235 (Brennan J); R v Phillips [1970] HCA 50; (1970) 125 CLR 93, 116 (Windeyer J).

^[87] [1947] HCA 26; (1947) 74 CLR 31, 81 (Dixon J).

^[88] Austin (2003) 215 CLR 185, 249 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

^[89] Ibid 264.

^[90] Ibid 301.

^[91] Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth [1992] HCA 45; (1992) 177 CLR 106, 135 (Mason CJ); see also McGinty v Western Australia [1996] HCA 48; (1996) 186 CLR 140, 169 (Brennan CJ); Austin (2003) 215 CLR 175, 245 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

^[92] Austin (2003) 215 CLR 175, 246 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

^[93] Ibid 195–6.

^[94] Ibid 196.

^[95] Ibid.

^[96] Ibid (citations omitted).

^[97] [1995] HCA 71; (1995) 184 CLR 188, 232 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ).

^[98] Austin (2003) 215 CLR 185, 283 (McHugh J).

^[99] Ibid 185.

^[100] See Victoria v Commonwealth [1971] HCA 16; (1971) 122 CLR 353 ('Pay-roll Tax Case'), 425 (Gibbs J).

^[101] [2006] FCA 1226; (2006) 153 FCR 104; (2007) 157 FCR 585.

^[102] Zentai [2007] FCAFC 48; (2007) 157 FCR 585.

^[103] [2007] FCAFC 48; (2007) 157 FCR 585, 588 (emphasis in original).

^[104] Ibid.

^[105] [2006] FCA 1226; (2006) 153 FCR 104, 112.

^[106] Ibid 111.

^[107] Ibid 112.

^[108] [2007] FCAFC 48; (2007) 157 FCR 585, 586 (Moore J), 589 (Tamberlin J), 591 (Gyles J).

^[109] [2007] FCAFC 109; (2007) 161 FCR 220.

^[110] Ibid 229–30.

^[111] Austin (2003) 215 CLR 185, 269 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

^[112] [1923] HCA 34; (1923) 33 CLR 1.

^[113] Fardon v Attorney-General (Qld) [2004] HCA 46; (2004) 223 CLR 575, 618 (Gummow J). For criticism of the cautious approach adopted by the High Court in Austin, see Amelia Simpson, 'State Immunity from Commonwealth Laws: Austin v Commonwealth and Dilemmas of Doctrinal Design' [2004] UWALawRw 3; (2004) 32 University of Western Australia Law Review 44.

^[114] AEU [1995] HCA 71; (1995) 184 CLR 188, 233.

^[115] Ibid 250.

^[116] Zines, above n 77, 336.

^[117] Austin (2003) 215 CLR 185, 249 (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

^[118] See Graeme Hill, 'Austin v Commonwealth: Discrimination and the Melbourne Corporation Doctrine' (2003) 14 Public Law Review 80; and Simpson, above n 114.

^[119] QEC [1985] HCa 56; (1985) 159 CLR 192, 249 (Deane J); see also 220–1 (Mason J).

^[120] [2000] USSC 6; 528 U.S. 141, 151 (2000).

^[121] Austin (2003) 215 CLR 185, 248.

^[122] Ibid 246.

^[123] Adrienne Stone, 'The Limits of Constitutional Text and Structure Revisited' [2005] UNSWLawJl 50; (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 842, 845.

^[124] For American criticism of text and structure interpretations of federalism, see Lawrence Lessig, 'Understanding Federalism's Text' (1998) 66 George Washington Law Review 1218.

^[125] Tribe, above n 61, 890.

^[126] Western Australian v Commonwealth [1975] HCA 46; (1975) 134 CLR 201 ('First Territories Senators' Case').

^[127] Queensland v Commonwealth [1977] HCA 60; (1977) 139 CLR 585 ('Second Territories Senators' Case'), 603 (Stephen J).

^[128] [2004] HCA 39; (2004) 220 CLR 1.

^[129] Stone, above n 124, 850 (emphasis in original).

^[130] Sir Anthony Mason, 'The Role of a Constitutional Court in a Federation: A Comparison of the Australian and United States Experience' [1986] FedLawRw 1; (1986) 16 Federal Law Review 1, 20.

^[131] See Australian Securities and Investments Commission v Edensor Nominees Pty Ltd (2001) 204 CLR 559, 572 (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron and Gummow JJ).

^[132] Cheryl Saunders, 'Administrative Law and Relations between Governments: Australia and Europe Compared' (2000) 28 Federal Law Review 263, 267.

^[133] See, eg, Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire (1986).

^[134] Graeme Hill, 'Revisiting Wakim and Hughes: The Distinct Demands of Federalism' (2002) 13 Public Law Review 205, 218.

^[135] Printz, [1997] USSC 77; 521 US 898, 921 (1997).

^[136] [2006] HCA 52; (2006) 81 ALJR 34, 158; [2006] HCA 52; 231 ALR 1, 151.

^[137] XYZ v Commonwealth [2006] HCA 25; (2006) 227 CLR 532, 571.

^[138] New York[1992] USSC 92; , 505 US 144, 181 (1992), quoting Coleman v Thompson, [1991] USSC 129; 501 US 722, 759 (1991).

^[139] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 921 (1997), quoting Gregory v Ashcroft [1991] USSC 108; 501 US 452, 458 (1991).

^[140] [1992] HCA 51; (1992) 177 CLR 248.

^[141] Ibid 279 (Brennan, Deane and Toohey JJ).

^[142] Leeth v Commonwealth (1991) 174 CLR 455, 484.

^[143] Mason, above n 131, 20.

^[144] New York v United States, [1992] USSC 92; 505 US 144, 169 (1992).

^[145] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 920 (1997).

^[146] Jackson, above n 52, 2201.

^[147] Hills, above n 64, 828.

^[148] Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation [1997] HCA 25; (1997) 189 CLR 520, 558–9, 561.

^[149] Graeme Hill, 'Will the High Court 'Wakim' Chapter II of the Constitution?' (2003) 31 Federal Law Review 445, 474.

^[150] (2000) 201 CLR 213, 219 (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

^[151] Hill, above n 150 475.

^[152] George Winterton, Parliament, the Executive and the Governor-General: A Constitutional Analysis (1983) 104, extracted in Hill, above n 150, 475.

^[153] Hills, above n 64, 826 (emphasis in original).

^[154] See Re Wakim; Ex parte McNally (1999) 198 CLR 511.

^[155] Hills, above n 64, 826.

^[156] First Uniform Tax Case [1942] HCA 14; (1942) 65 CLR 373, 429.

^[157] (2001) 207 CLR 391.

^[158] Ibid 460.

^[159] (2003) 215 CLR 185, 306.

^[160] Hill, above n 150, 476.

^[161] See, eg, Tramways Case (No 1) [1914] HCA 15; (1914) 18 CLR 54, 79 (Isaacs J); R v Murray and Cormie; Ex parte Commonwealth [1916] HCA 58; (1916) 22 CLR 437, 452 (Isaacs J), 464 (Higgins J); Trimbole v Dugan [1984] FCA 323; (1984) 3 FCR 324, 328 (Woodward J).

^[162] This can be contrasted with judicial review under the Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth), which requires that a decision be 'administrative' in nature and made 'under' an enactment.

^[163] Hill, above n 150, 481.

^[164] Simpson, above n 114, 56 (emphasis in original).

^[165] Ibid.

^[166] Ibid.

^[167] Ibid 57.

^[168] [2000] USSC 6; 528 US 141, 151 (2000).

^[169] Tribe, above n 61, 894.

^[170] Simpson, above n 114, 52–53.

^[171] Caminker, above n 4, 200.

^[172] Adrienne Stone, 'The Limits of Constitutional Text and Structure: Standards of Review and the Freedom of Political Communication' [1999] MelbULawRw 26; (1999) 23 Melbourne University Law Review 668, 694.

^[173] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 940 (1997).

^[174] Ibid 955.

^[175] Jackson, above n 52, 2254.

^[176] Hills, above n 64, 822.

^[177] Ibid 894.

^[178] Ibid 895–6.

^[179] (2003) 215 CLR 185, 305.

^[180] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 959 (1997).

^[181] Ibid.

^[182] Clayton Cornell and J Mitchell Pickering, 'Guess What Happened on the Way to the Revolution? Precursors to the Supreme Court's Federalism Revolution' (2004) 34 Publius 85, 85.

^[183] Printz[1997] USSC 77; , 521 US 898, 976–7 (1997).