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2002
THE PARLIAMENT OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF
AUSTRALIA
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
SECURITY
LEGISLATION AMENDMENT (TERRORISM) BILL 2002
EXPLANATORY
MEMORANDUM
(Circulated by authority of the
Attorney-General,
the Honourable Daryl Williams AM QC MP)
SECURITY LEGISLATION AMENDMENT (TERRORISM) BILL 2002
GENERAL OUTLINE
The Security Legislation Amendment
(Terrorism) Bill 2001 (the Bill) amends the Criminal Code Act 1995 (the
Criminal Code) to combat terrorism by ensuring that there are criminal
offences to deal with terrorism and membership of a terrorist organisation, or
other links to a terrorist organisation, may be an offence.
The Bill
inserts a series of new terrorism offences into the Criminal Code, all of
which carry a penalty of life imprisonment. The offences are: engaging in a
terrorist act; providing or receiving training for a terrorist act; directing
organisations concerned with a terrorist act; possessing things connected with a
terrorist act; collecting or making documents likely to facilitate a terrorist
act; and acts in preparation for, or planning, a terrorist act. With the
exception of the offence of engaging in a terrorist act, it is not necessary for
a terrorist act to actually occur for a person to be prosecuted for a terrorism
offence.
The Bill also includes a regime for the Attorney-General to proscribe an
organisation that has a specified terrorist connection or that has endangered,
or is likely to endanger, the security or integrity of the Commonwealth, and to
make membership or other specified links with such an organisation an
offence.
The Bill replaces the treason offence in the Crimes Act 1914
with a new offence, framed in accordance with contemporary drafting practice
and the standard approach under the Criminal Code.
Finally, the Bill
proposes amendments to the Australian Protective Service Act 1987 and the
Crimes (Aviation) Act 1991 to ensure that Australian Protective Service
has powers to deal with terrorist related offences, and to exercise the aircraft
security officer function on intra-state flights.
Financial Impact
It is not expected that the Bill will have
a direct financial impact.
NOTES ON CLAUSES
Part 1 – Preliminary
Clause 1: Short Title
This clause is a formal provision
specifying the short title of the Bill.
Clause 2:
Commencement
Subclause 2(1) provides that each provision of the
Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002 (the Act) listed in
column 1 of the table in clause 2 commences, or is taken to have commenced, on
the day specified in column 2 of the table.
Item 1 of the table provides
that clauses 1-3 of the Bill and any other clauses not covered in the table
commence on the day on which the Act receives the Royal Assent.
Item 2 of
the table provides that item 1 of Schedule 1, the proposed amendment to the
Criminal Code Act 1995 (the Criminal Code) to insert a new Chapter 5 into
the Criminal Code to deal with offences relating to the integrity and security
of the Commonwealth, commences on the day on which the Act receives the Royal
Assent, subject to subclause (3).
Item 3 of the table provides that item
2 of Schedule 1, which inserts into Chapter 5 of the Criminal Code a new Part
5.1, commences the day after the Act receives the Royal Assent.
Item 4 of
the table provides that item 3 of Schedule 1, which inserts into Chapter 5 of
the Criminal Code a new Part 5.3 dealing with preliminary aspects of the new
terrorism offences, commences the day after the Act receives the Royal Assent,
subject to subclause (4).
Item 5 of the table provides that items 4 and 5
of Schedule 1, which insert into Chapter 5 of the Criminal Code the terrorism
offences and an application provision in relation to the terrorism offences,
commence immediately after the start of the day the Act receives the Royal
Assent.
Item 6 of the table provides that item 6 of Schedule 1, which
amends subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act 1914 to amend the list of
offences that may not be dealt with summarily, commences the day after this Act
receives the Royal Assent, subject to subsection (5).
Item 7 of the
table provides that item 7 of Schedule 1, which substitutes a new subsection for
subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act 1914, commences immediately after the
commencement of item 2 of Schedule 1, subject to subsection (6).
Item 8 of the table provides that items 8 to 18 of Schedule 1, which
are consequential amendments to the Crimes Act 1914 and the Migration
Act 1958, commence on the day after the Act receives the Royal Assent.
Item 9 of the table provides that item 1 of Schedule 2, the first of the
two proposed amendments to the Australian Protective Service Act 1987 to
implement the air security officer scheme, commences on the later of the
commencement of Division 72 of the Criminal Code and the start of the day on
which the Act receives the Royal Assent.
Item 10 of the table provides
that item 2 of Schedule 2, the second of the proposed amendments to the
Australian Protective Service Act 1987 to implement the air security
officer scheme, commences at the same time as Division 101 of the Criminal
Code commences.
Item 11 of the table provides that items 3 and 4
of Schedule 2, the proposed amendments to the Crimes (Aviation) Act 1991
to implement the air security officer scheme, commence on the
28th day after the day on which the Act receives the Royal
Assent.
Subclause 2(2) provides that Column 3 of the table is for
additional information that is not part of the Act. Relevant commencement dates
may be entered into Column 3 by users of the Explanatory Memorandum in the
future.
Subclause 2(3) provides that if either the Criminal Code
Amendment (Espionage and Related Offences) Act 2002 or the Suppression of
the Financing of Terrorism Act 2002 receives the Royal Assent on or before
the day on which the Act receives the Royal Assent, the provision covered by
item 2 of the table does not commence at all. Item 3 of Schedule 1 inserts a new
Chapter 5 into the Criminal Code to deal with offences relating to the integrity
and security of the Commonwealth. Subclause 2(3) has been included because, at
the time of drafting, it could not be known which of the three Acts containing
the provision establishing the new Chapter 5 would commence
first.
Subclause 2(4) provides that if the Suppression of Financing of
Terrorism Act 2002 receives the Royal Assent on the same day or before the
day that the Act receives the Royal Assent, the provision covered by item 4 of
the table does not commence at all. Item 4 of the table deals with the
commencement of the insertion of the preliminary aspects of the new terrorism
offences into the Criminal Code. Subclause 2(4) has been included because, at
the time of drafting, it could not be known whether the Act or the
Suppression of Financing of Terrorism Bill 2002, which contains an
equivalent provision, would commence first.
Subclause 2(5) provides that
if item 1 of Schedule 2 to the Criminal Code Amendment (Espionage and Related
Offences) Act 2002 commences before or at the same time as item 2 of
Schedule 1 to the Act, then item 6 of Schedule 1 to the Act does not commence at
all. Item 6 of Schedule 1 amends subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act 1914
to amend the list of offences that may not be dealt with summarily.
Subclause 2(5) has been included because, at the time of drafting, it could not
be known whether the Act or the Criminal Code Amendment (Espionage and
Related Offences) Act 2002 would commence first.
Subclause 2(6)
provides that if item 1 of Schedule 2 to the Criminal Code Amendment
(Espionage and Related Offences) Act 2002 does not commence before or at the
same time as item 2 of Schedule 1 to the Act, then item 7 of Schedule 1 to the
Act does not commence at all. Item 7 of Schedule 1 substitutes a new subsection
for subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act 1914.
Subclause 2(6) has been
included because, at the time of drafting, it could not be known whether the Act
or the Criminal Code Amendment (Espionage and Related Offences) Act 2002
would commence first.
Clause 3: Schedule(s)
Clause 3
provides that each Act specified in a schedule is amended as set out in the
Schedule concerned.
Schedule 1 – Amendments relating to treason and terrorism
Item 1 – the Schedule (after Chapter 4 of the Criminal
Code)
Item 1 inserts a new Chapter 5 into the Criminal Code.
Proposed Chapter 5 deals with the integrity and security of the Commonwealth.
The Criminal Code Amendment (Espionage and Related Offences) Act 2002 and
the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism Act 2002 also contain an
item inserting a new Chapter 5 into the Criminal Code. Each Bill has a special
commencement provision ensuring that the first Act to receive the Royal Assent
will insert the new Chapter 5. This is necessary because, at the time of
drafting, it cannot be known which Act will commence first.
Item 2
– The Schedule (Chapter 5 of the Criminal Code)
Item 2
inserts into Chapter 5 of the Criminal Code a new Part 5.1 – Treason of
the Criminal Code. Item 2 refers to insertion of the part “in the
numerical position appropriate” because both the Criminal Code Amendment
(Espionage and Related Offences) Act 2002 and the Suppression of the Financing
of Terrorism Act 2002 also propose to insert provisions into
Chapter 5 and, at the time of drafting, it cannot be known which Act will
commence first.
Proposed section 80.1 of the Criminal Code replicates the existing
treason offence in section 24 of the Crimes Act subject to changes described
below designed to modernise the offence and remove certain anomalies and
limitations. A number of the amendments to the treason offence reflect
recommendations of the Gibbs Committee review of Commonwealth Criminal Law and
the Canadian Law Reform Commission report on Recodifying Criminal
Law.
Each paragraph of proposed subsection 80.1(1) is an alternative
basis on which the offence of treason may be made out. Paragraph 80.1(1)(f),
described below, is entirely new and its inclusion reflects the most significant
difference between the proposed section 80.1 and the existing section 24. The
other paragraphs in subsection 80.1(1) are based on paragraphs of the existing
subsection 24(1) of the Crimes Act.
Proposed paragraph 80.1(1)(a) makes
it an offence for a person to cause the death of the Sovereign, the heir
apparent or the Consort of the Sovereign. The proposed offence uses the phrase
“causes the death of” which is the modern drafting style reflected
in, for example, paragraph 71.2(1)(c) of the Criminal Code. This replaces the
more old fashioned and limited term “kills”, which appears in the
existing subsection 24(1). The phrase 'causes the death of' is also employed in
sections 5.1.9 to 5.1.11 of the Model Criminal Code (see Discussion Paper:
Fatal Offences Against the Person, June 1998). The Model Criminal Code
Discussion Paper concludes that “the reckless killer foreseeing the
probability of causing death is ‘just as blameworthy’ as the
intentional killer”(p.59) . This paragraph is mirrored on part of the
existing paragraph 24(1)(a) and part of the existing paragraph 24(1)(b) of the
Crimes Act.
Proposed paragraph 80.1(1)(b) makes it an offence to cause
harm to the Sovereign that results in their death. The proposed offence uses
the phrase “causes harm” in line with Criminal Code precedents at
paragraph 71.6(1)(a) and paragraph 147.1(1)(b). The term ‘harm’ is
defined in the Criminal Code Dictionary as physical harm or harm to a
person’s mental health, whether temporary or permanent. However, it does
not include being subjected to any force or impact that is within the limits of
what is acceptable as incidental to social interaction or to life in the
community. The proposed offence also uses the phrase “resulting in the
Sovereign’s death”. This paragraph is mirrored on part of the
existing paragraph 24(1)(a). The two new phrases reflect the modern drafting
style of the Code and replace the older terms of “maims and wounds”
in the existing paragraph 24(1)(a) of the Crimes Act.
References to the
“eldest son” and to the “Queen” in the existing
paragraph 24(1)(b) have been amended to employ gender neutral language.
Proposed paragraph 80.1(1)(c) makes it an offence to cause harm to, imprison
or restrain the Sovereign. As noted above, ‘harm’ is defined in the
Criminal Code Dictionary. Unlike proposed paragraph 80.1(1)(b), this offence
does not require that the physical harm directed at the Sovereign leads to
death. This paragraph is mirrored on part of the existing paragraph 24(1)(a) of
the Crimes Act.
Proposed paragraph 80.1(1)(d) makes it an offence to levy
war, or do any act preparatory to levying war, against the Commonwealth. This
is a replication of the existing paragraph in section 24(1)(c) of the Crimes
Act.
Proposed paragraph 80.1(1)(e) makes it an offence for a person to
engage in conduct that assists by any means whatever, with the intent to assist,
an enemy at war with the Commonwealth, whether or not the existence of a state
of war has been declared. The “enemy” is defined within the section
as one specified by proclamation made for the purpose of this paragraph to be an
enemy at war with the Commonwealth. This is a replication of the existing
paragraph 24(1)(d) of the Crimes Act.
Proposed paragraph 80.1(1)(f)
makes it an offence to engage in conduct that assists by any means whatever,
with the intent to assist, another country or an organisation that is engaged in
armed hostilities with the Australian Defence Force. “Organisation”
is defined as a body corporate or an unincorporated body whether or not the body
is based outside of Australia, consists of persons who are not Australian
citizens, or is part of a larger organisation (see proposed section 80.1(8)).
This paragraph ensures that treason provisions can apply not only when Australia
is “at war” but also when Australia is engaged in armed hostilities
that do not constitute a formally declared war. The paragraph also removes the
need for an enemy to be proclaimed and makes it clear that hostilities can
involve a foreign organisation rather than a foreign country. These amendments
are designed to ensure that the offence of treason reflects the realities of
modern conflict that do not necessarily involve a declared war against a
proclaimed enemy. The new paragraph is therefore a contemporary variant of the
existing paragraph 24(1)(d) of the Crimes Act, now to be reflected in proposed
paragraph 80.1(e).
Proposed paragraphs 80.1(1)(e) and 80.1(1)(f) now both
include the term “engages in conduct” because under the Criminal
Code, fault attaches to individual physical elements of conduct, circumstance or
result. The proposed paragraphs distinguish the conduct element of the offence,
for which intention must be proven, from the result element, for which
recklessness or knowledge must be proven. This is the way section 24 probably
would have been read, but this amendment makes this explicit.
Proposed
paragraph 80.1(1)(g) makes it an offence for a person to instigate a person who
is not an Australian citizen to make an armed invasion of the Commonwealth. The
“person” who instigates a non-Australian citizen to undertake such
action would not necessarily have to be an Australian citizen either. This
ensures that action by, for example, Australian residents, can be treated as
treasonous. This paragraph is mirrored in part on existing paragraph
24(1)(e).
Proposed paragraph 80.1(1)(h) makes it an offence for any
person to form an intention to do any act referred to in the proceeding
paragraphs and to manifest that intention by an overt act. This paragraph is
mirrored on existing paragraph 24(1)(f).
The maximum penalty for an
offence against this section is life imprisonment.
Although the existing subsection 24(1) of the Crimes Act is expressed
as carrying the death penalty as a maximum, this is to be read as a maximum of
life imprisonment under the Death Penalty Abolition Act 1973. The
explicit reference to a maximum penalty of life imprisonment is therefore merely
a tidying up amendment.
Proposed subsection 80.1(2) replicates the
existing subsection 24(2) as contained in the Crimes Act with some minor
language changes. Proposed paragraph 80.1(2)(a) makes it an offence for anyone
to assist in anyway a person who has committed treason with the intention of
allowing him or her to escape apprehension or punishment. The offence has been
extended slightly by adding to “escape apprehension”, as well as
punishment. The terminology “in order to enable” has been replaced
with the more modern Code style language of “with the intention of
allowing”. Proposed paragraph 80.1(2)(b) makes knowledge of proposed
treason an offence and requires a person with that knowledge to inform a
constable, as defined in the new proposed subsection 80.1(8), of that fact.
Alternatively, a person with that knowledge must use other reasonable endeavours
to prevent the treason occurring. The penalty for an offence against this
subsection is life imprisonment.
Proposed subsections 80.1(3) and
80.1(4) replace the existing procedural requirements for the offence of treason
as contained in subsections 24AC(1) and (2) of the Crimes Act. Proposed
subsection 80.1(3) specifies that any proceedings brought in respect of a
treason offence in proposed subsections 80.1(1) or 80.1(2) must be instituted
with the written consent of the Attorney-General. This is a departure from the
Crimes Act model where the written consent of a person authorised by the
Attorney-General was sufficient for the purposes of the section. This is in
line with section 270.11 of the Code, which requires the
Attorney-General’s consent before proceedings for an offence against
Division 7 can be commenced. The language of the proposed subsection is also
further modernised to omit the old trial/summary distinction and replace it with
“proceedings for an offence” in line with the language of section
270.11 of the Criminal Code. The consent requirement still applies to any form
of proceeding, but is worded more efficiently.
Proposed subsection
80.1(4) provides that a person may be arrested for a treason offence or a
warrant for their arrest issued without subsection 80.1(3) consent. The person
may then be charged and remanded in custody or on bail. At this point no
further proceedings may be taken until consent under subsection 80.1(3) is
obtained. The section also provides that a person must be discharged if
proceedings are not continued within a reasonable time. This is a standard
corollary to an Attorney-General's consent provision, and ensures that the
requirement for consent regulates the conduct of proceedings, but does not
prevent arrest, charge and remand, which may require urgent action and be
incompatible with the careful consideration of the consent decision. The
consent requirement is appropriate because the treason offence is an offence
against the nation and therefore special considerations are relevant as to
whether a prosecution is justified. This supplements the general requirement
for the Attorney-General's consent in certain cases where the conduct
constituting an offence occurs wholly in a foreign country, under section 16.1
of the Criminal Code.
Proposed subsection 80.1(5) replicates the
existing Crimes Act subsection 24(3). This subsection contains a rule of
procedure which provides that where a person is charged with intent to commit
any of the treason offences under subsection 24(1) and that intention was
manifested by an overt act, evidence of the overt act is not to be admitted
unless the overt act is alleged in the indictment.
Proposed subsection
80.1(6) extends the application of 24F of the Crimes Act to this new section
80.1 in the same way it would if this section were a provision of Part II of
that Act. Section 24F outlines circumstances where specified acts done in good
faith (for example, legitimate criticism or protest) are not unlawful, including
for the purposes of the treason offence.
Proposed subsection 80.1(7)
would apply Category D geographical jurisdiction, as set out in section 15.4 of
the Criminal Code, to the offences proposed in 80.1(1) and
80.1(2).
Category D geographical jurisdiction will be satisfied whether
or not the conduct constituting the alleged offence occurs in Australia and
whether or not a result of the conduct constituting the alleged offence occurs
in Australia. This jurisdiction is appropriate due to the transnational nature
of terrorist activities, to ensure that a person cannot escape prosecution or
punishment based on a jurisdictional loophole.
Proposed subsection
80.1(8) contains definitions of terms used in proposed Part 5.1 of the Criminal
Code:
Constable is defined as a member or special member
of the Australian Federal Police or a member of the police force or police
service of a State or Territory. This definition corresponds to the definition
of “constable” in section 3 of the Crimes Act . This definition is
used in proposed subsection 80.1(2) to define those to who a treason offence
must be reported.
Organisation is defined to mean a body
corporate or an unincorporated body, whether or not the body is based outside
Australia, consists of persons who are not Australian citizens or is part of a
larger organisation. This definition is used in proposed subparagraph
80.1(f)(ii) to describe groups, the assistance of which is treason. The
definition is used in the same sense in proposed subsection 102.2(1).
Item 3 – The Schedule (at the end of Chapter 5 of the Criminal
Code)
Item 3 insert a new Part 5.3 – Terrorism into the
Criminal Code.
Proposed section 100.1 contains definitions of terms used in proposed
Part 5.3 of the Criminal Code.
Commonwealth place is given
the same meaning as in the Commonwealth Places (Application of Laws) Act
1970 where it means a place (not being the seat of government) with respect
to which the Parliament, by virtue of section 52 of the Constitution, has,
subject to the Constitution, exclusive power to make laws for the peace, order,
and good government of the Commonwealth. The new financing of terrorism offence
in proposed section 103.1 will extend to actions that take place in a
Commonwealth place. This definition is one of the mechanisms that aligns the
ambit of the offence with the scope of Commonwealth legislative power under the
Constitution.
constitutional corporation is defined to mean
a corporation within the terms of paragraph 51(xx) of the Constitution.
Paragraph 51(xx) of the Constitution covers foreign, trading and financial
corporations. The new financing of terrorism offence in proposed section 103.1
will extend to actions that affect constitutional corporations or that are
carried out by constitutional corporations. This definition is one of the
mechanisms that aligns the ambit of the offence with the scope of Commonwealth
legislative power under the Constitution.
funds is defined
as property and assets of every kind and legal documents or instruments in any
form. The definition is broad in scope and is derived from Article 1 of the
International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism. The
breadth of the definition will ensure that the financing of terrorism offence
applies regardless of whether a person facilitates a terrorist act through the
provision of money, equipment or weapons.
organisation is
defined as a body corporate or an unincorporated body, whether or not it is
based in Australia, consists of persons who are not Australian citizens, or is
part of a larger organisation. The definition of organisation is relevant to
the proscribed organisations offences in Schedule 1 to Security Legislation
Amendment (Terrorism) Bill 2002. The definition was included to defeat any
argument that a group of persons is not an organisation because it does not have
a particular formal attribute or structure.
terrorist act
is defined to mean a specified action or threat of action that is made with the
intention of advancing a political, religious or ideological cause. The types of
actions covered by the definition of “terrorist act” are set out in
proposed subsection 100.1(2) and include actions involving serious harm to
persons, serious damage to property and interference with essential electronic
systems. The new offence in proposed section 103.1 will apply to the financing
of actions which fall within this definition.
Lawful advocacy, protest
and dissent, and industrial action are expressly excluded from the ambit of the
definition.
Proposed subsection 100.1(2) sets out the types of
action referred to in the proposed subsection 100.1(1) that can
constitute a “terrorist act”. The types of actions listed involve
serious harm, damage or disruption. A terrorist act includes action that
involves serious harm to a person or serious damage to property, endangers life,
creates a serious risk to the health or safety of the public or a section of the
public, or is designed to seriously interfere with, seriously disrupt, or
destroy, an electronic system. Electronic systems include information systems;
telecommunications systems; financial systems; and systems used for essential
government services, essential public utilities and transport
providers.
Proposed subsection 100.1(3) provides that a reference in
proposed Division 100 to any person or property is a reference to
any person or property within or outside Australia. It also provides that a
reference to the public includes a reference to the public of a
foreign country.
Proposed section 100.2 provides a broad constitutional basis for the new
financing of terrorism offence in proposed section 103.1 and the proposed
terrorism offences which will also be inserted into Part 5.3. An action or
threat of action will give rise to an offence under Part 5.3 where it is within
the scope of the Commonwealth’s legislative power under the Constitution.
Proposed subsection 100.2(2) draws on the various bases of Commonwealth
legislative power in section 51 of the Constitution to specify particular
circumstances in which an action or threat of action will give rise to an
offence. These include circumstances where the action:
• affects the
interests of the Commonwealth, a Commonwealth authority, or a foreign, trading
or financial corporation;
• affects foreign or interstate trade or
commerce, banking or insurance;
• takes place outside Australia; or
• is an action in relation to which the Commonwealth is obliged to
create an offence under international law (for example, United Nations Security
Council Resolution 1373 obliges Australia to criminalise the collection and
provision of funds for terrorist acts).
Item 4 – The Schedule (after Division 100 of the Criminal Code)
Item 4 inserts a new Division, Division 101 – Terrorism into the
Criminal Code.
Proposed subsection 101.1(1) provides that it is an offence for a person to engage in a terrorist act. Terrorist act is defined in proposed section 100.1. The maximum penalty is life imprisonment.
Proposed subsection 101.1(2) applies Category D geographical jurisdiction, as set out in section 15.4 of the Criminal Code, to an offence against subsection 101.1(1). Category D jurisdiction is unrestricted. Its application to the offence of engaging in a terrorist act means that the offence will be committed whether or not the conduct or the result of the conduct constituting the offence occurs in Australia.
Proposed section 101.2(1) provides that a person commits an offence if the
person provides or receives training in the making of use of firearms,
explosives, or chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear weapons and the
training is connected with preparation for, the engagement of a person in, or
assistance in a terrorist act. Terrorist act is defined in proposed
section 100.1. The maximum penalty is life imprisonment.
Proposed
subsection 101.2(2) provides that absolute liability applies to the provision or
receipt of training is connected with preparation for, the engagement of a
person in, or assistance in a terrorist act. This means that, as long as the
person’s provision or receipt of the training was voluntary, the
person’s mental state is not relevant.
Subsection 6.2(2) of the Criminal Code provides that if a law that creates an offence provides that absolute liability applies to a particular physical element of the offence:
(a) there are no fault elements for that physical element; and
(b) the defence of mistake of fact under section 9.2 of the Criminal Code is unavailable in relation to that physical element.
Absolute liability is appropriate where fault is required to be proven in relation to another element or other elements of the offence, and there is no legitimate ground for the person to allow a situation to occur where the absolute liability element occurs. In this case, a person who provides or receives training in the making or use of firearms, explosives or weapons should be on notice that this should not be done if there is any possibility of this being connected to a terrorist act. The person must avoid this possibility arising, and if they cannot, they should not provide or receive the training.
It is therefore not necessary to prove fault in relation to the terrorist connection. If it exists in fact, the person is liable.
Subsection 6.2(3) of the Criminal Code provides that the existence of absolute liability does not make any other defence unavailable. Criminal Code defences that may be relevant and that would prevent a person being liable notwithstanding the application of absolute liability include intervening conduct or event (section 10.1), duress (section 10.2), sudden or extraordinary emergency (section 10.3) and self-defence (section 10.4).
Proposed subsection 101.2(3) provides that a person commits an offence
under subsection (1) even if the terrorist act does not occur.
Proposed
subsection 101.2(4) provides that the offence in subsection (1) does not apply
if the person proves that he or she was not reckless with respect to the
circumstance in paragraph (1)(b).
Proposed subsection 101.2(5) applies Category D geographical jurisdiction, as set out in section 15.4 of the Criminal Code, to an offence against subsection 101.2(1). Category D jurisdiction is unrestricted. Its application to the offence of providing or receiving training for terrorist acts means that the offence will be committed whether or not the conduct or the result of the conduct constituting the offence occurs in Australia.
Proposed section 101.3 – Directing
organisations concerned with terrorist acts
Proposed subsection 101.3(1) provides that a person commits an offence if the
person directs the activities of an organisation that is directly or indirectly
concerned with fostering preparation for, the engagement of a person in, or
assistance in a terrorist act. Terrorist act is defined in proposed
section 100.1. The maximum penalty is life imprisonment.
Proposed
subsection 101.3(2) provides that a person commits an offence under subsection
(1) even if the terrorist act does not occur.
Proposed subsection 101.3(3) applies Category D geographical jurisdiction, as set out in section 15.4 of the Criminal Code, to an offence against subsection 101.3(1). Category D jurisdiction is unrestricted. Its application to the offence of directing organisations concerned with terrorist acts means that the offence will be committed whether or not the conduct or the result of the conduct constituting the offence occurs in Australia.
Proposed section 101.4 – Possessing
things connected with terrorist acts
Proposed subsection 101.4(1) provides that a person commits an offence if the
person possesses a thing and the thing is connected with preparation for, the
engagement of a person in, or assistance in a terrorist act. Terrorist act
is defined in proposed section 100.1. The maximum penalty is life
imprisonment.
Proposed subsection 101.4(2) provides that absolute
liability applies to the possession of things connected with
preparation for, the engagement of a person in, or assistance in a
terrorist act.
Subsection 6.2(2) of the Criminal Code provides that if a law that creates an offence provides that absolute liability applies to a particular physical element of the offence:
(a) there are no fault elements for that physical element; and
(b) the defence of mistake of fact under section 9.2 of the Criminal Code is unavailable in relation to that physical element.
Absolute liability is appropriate where fault is required to be proven in relation to another element or other elements of the offence, and there is no legitimate ground for the person to allow a situation to occur where the absolutely liability element occurs. In this case, a person who possesses things in connection with preparation for, the engagement of a person in, or assistance in a terrorist act, should be on notice that this should not be done if there is any possibility of this being connected to a terrorist act. The person must avoid this possibility arising, and if they cannot, they should not possess the thing.
It is therefore not necessary to prove fault in relation to the terrorist connection. If it exists in fact, the person is liable.
Subsection 6.2(3) of the Criminal Code provides that the existence of absolute liability does not make any other defence unavailable. Criminal Code defences that may be relevant and that would prevent a person being liable notwithstanding the application of absolute liability include intervening conduct or event (section 10.1), duress (section 10.2), sudden or extraordinary emergency (section 10.3) and self-defence (section 10.4).
Proposed subsection 101.4(3) provides that a person commits an offence
under subsection (1) even if the terrorist act does not occur.
Subsection
101.4(4) provides that the offence in subsection (1) does not
apply if the person proves that he or she was not reckless with respect to the
circumstance in paragraph (1)(b).
Proposed subsection 101.4(5) applies Category D geographical jurisdiction, as set out in section 15.4 of the Criminal Code, to an offence against subsection 101.4. Category D jurisdiction is unrestricted. Its application to the offence of possessing things connected with terrorist acts means that the offence will be committed whether or not the conduct or the result of the conduct constituting the offence occurs in Australia.
Proposed section 101.5 – Collecting
or making documents likely to facilitate terrorist acts
Proposed subsection 101.5(1) provides that a person commits an offence if the
person collects or makes a document and the document is connected with
preparation for, the engagement of a person in, or assistance in a terrorist
act. Terrorist act is defined in proposed section 100.1. The maximum
penalty is life imprisonment.
Proposed subsection 101.5(2) provides that
absolute liability applies to paragraph (1)(b).
Subsection 6.2(2) of the Criminal Code provides that if a law that creates an offence provides that absolute liability applies to a particular physical element of the offence:
(a) there are no fault elements for that physical element; and
(b) the defence of mistake of fact under section 9.2 of the Criminal Code is unavailable in relation to that physical element.
Absolute liability is appropriate where fault is required to be proven in relation to another element or other elements of the offence, and there is no legitimate ground for the person to allow a situation to occur where the absolutely liability element occurs. In this case, a person who collects or makes a document likely to facilitate a terrorist act should be on notice that this should not be done if there is any possibility of this being connected to a terrorist act. The person must avoid this possibility arising, and if they cannot, they should not collect or make the document.
It is therefore not necessary to prove fault in relation to the terrorist connection. If it exists in fact, the person is liable.
Proposed subsection 6.2(3) of the Criminal Code provides that the existence of absolute liability does not make any other defence unavailable. Criminal Code defences that may be relevant and that would prevent a person being liable notwithstanding the application of absolute liability include intervening conduct or event (section 10.1), duress (section 10.2), sudden or extraordinary emergency (section 10.3) and self-defence (section 10.4).
Proposed subsection 101.5(3) provides that a person commits an offence
under subsection (1) even if the terrorist act does not occur.
Proposed
subsection 101.5(4) provides that the offence in subsection (1)
does not apply if the person proves that he or she was not reckless with respect
to the circumstance in paragraph (1)(b).
Proposed subsection 101.5(5) applies Category D geographical jurisdiction, as set out in section 15.4 of the Criminal Code, to an offence against subsection 101.5(1). Category D jurisdiction is unrestricted. Its application to the offence of collecting or making documents likely to facilitate terrorist acts means that the offence will be committed whether or not the conduct or the result of the conduct constituting the offence occurs in Australia.
Proposed section 101.6 – Other
acts done in preparation for, or planning, terrorist acts
Proposed subsection 101.6(1) provides that a person commits an offence if the
person does any act in preparation for, or planning, a terrorist act.
Terrorist act is defined in proposed section 100.1. The maximum penalty
is life imprisonment.
Proposed subsection 101.6(2) provides that a person commits an offence under
subsection (1) even if the terrorist act does not occur.
Proposed
subsection 101.6(3) applies Category D geographical jurisdiction, as set out in
section 15.4 of the Criminal Code, to an offence against subsection 101.6(1).
Category D jurisdiction is unrestricted. Its application to the offence of
collecting or making documents likely to facilitate terrorist acts means that
the offence will be committed whether or not the conduct or the result of the
conduct constituting the offence occurs in Australia.
Proposed section 102.1 contains definitions of terms used in the proposed
Division 102 of the Criminal Code.
member of an
organisation includes a person who holds informal membership, a person who has
taken steps to become a member of the organisation and in the case of an
organisation that is a body corporate, a director or officer of the body
corporate. This definition is used in proposed paragraph 102.2(1)(b) to
describe an affiliation with a group, which may then lead to a group being
declared proscribed. This definition ensures that a person cannot evade
liability by a technical argument about their lack of formal membership
status.
proscribed organisation means an organisation in
relation to which a declaration under section 102.2 is in force.
the Commonwealth is defined to include the Territories
when used in a geographical sense. This term is used in the proscription power
in proposed paragraph 102.2(1)(d) and in the defence in proposed paragraph
102.4(3)(c). The effect of the definition is to ensure that threats to the
integrity and security of an external Territory can be considered to be threats
to the integrity and security of the Commonwealth and can therefore provide
grounds for a proscription or nullify the existence of a defence to the
proscribed organisations offence.
Proposed section 102.2 provides that the Attorney-General may make a
declaration in writing that one or more organisations is a proscribed
organisation. This declaration must effectively particularise the organisation
to ensure that other organisations not intended to be proscribed are not covered
by the declaration. Once an organisation has been proscribed, having specified
links to that organisation is a serious offence under proposed section 102.4.
The Attorney-General may declare an organisation proscribed if he/she is
satisfied on reasonable grounds that one or more of proposed paragraphs
102.2(1)(a)-(d) apply in relation to the organisation.
If an organisation
is a body corporate and the organisation is committing, or has committed an
offence against this part, that is, the terrorism offences, then proposed
paragraph 102.2(1)(a) would allow the Attorney-General to declare the
organisation proscribed. This could occur regardless of whether the
organisation has been charged or convicted with an offence.
If a member
of the organisation is committing, or has committed an offence against this Part
on behalf of the organisation, then proposed paragraph 102.2(1)(b) would allow
the Attorney-General to declare the organisation proscribed. Similarly, this
could occur regardless of whether the member has been charged or convicted with
an offence.
Proposed paragraph 102.2(1)(c) allows the Attorney-General to
declare an organisation proscribed if he/she is satisfied that the declaration
is reasonably appropriate to give effect to a decision of the United Nations
Security Council that the organisation is an international terrorist
organisation.
Proposed paragraph 102.2(1)(d) allows the Attorney-General
to declare an organisation proscribed if he/she is satisfied that the
organisation is likely to endanger or has endangered the security or integrity
of the Commonwealth or another country.
The lawfulness of the
Attorney-General's decision making process and reasoning is subject to judicial
review under the Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act
1977.
Proposed subsection 102.2(2) specifies that the
Attorney-General must publish the declaration in the Gazette and a
newspaper circulating in each State, in the Australian Capital Territory and in
the Northern Territory. This wide circulation of such a declaration allows
individuals the opportunity to discontinue their involvement with such an
organisation at the earliest possible notice.
Proposed subsection
102.2(3) clarifies that such a declaration would come into force when it is
published in the Gazette. The declaration then would stay in force until
it is revoked or until a day, as specified in the declaration, as the day the
declaration ceases to be in force.
Proposed subsection 102.2(4) allows
the Attorney-General to delegate powers and functions under subsection (1) to a
Minister. This is a limited delegation power, which reflects the importance of
the power to declare an organisation as proscribed and the need for that
decision to be made out at a senior level.
Proposed section 102.3 gives the Attorney-General power to revoke a
declaration that an organisation is proscribed. Proposed subsection 102.3(1)
obliges the Attorney-General to revoke a declaration that an organisation is
proscribed if the Attorney-General is satisfied on reasonable grounds that none
of the paragraphs in proposed subsection 102.2(1) apply in relation to the
organisation. This could be done on the Attorney-General's own motion, or on
application.
Proposed subsection 102.3(2) confers a discretionary power
upon the Attorney-General to revoke a declaration that an organisation is
proscribed.
Proposed subsection 102.3(3) obliges the Attorney-General to
publish a revocation in the Commonwealth Gazette and a newspaper
circulating in each State, in the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern
Territory.
Proposed subsection 102.3(4) clarifies that a revocation made
under this section comes into force when it is published in the
Gazette.
Proposed subsection 102.3(5) allows the Attorney-General
to delegate powers and functions under subsection (1) or (2) to a Minister.
This is a limited delegation power, which reflects the importance of the power
to declare an organisation as proscribed and the need for that decision to be
made at a senior level.
Proposed section 102.4 specifies what kind of interaction with proscribed
organisations constitutes an offence. Proposed subsection 102.4(1) provides
that a person commits an offence if the person: (i) directs the activities of a
proscribed organisation; (ii) directly or indirectly receives funds from or
makes funds available to a proscribed organisation; (iii) is a member of a
proscribed organisation; (iv) provides training to, or trains with, a proscribed
organisation; or (v) assists a proscribed organisation.
In a prosecution
of an offence against subsection 102.4(1) it is not necessary to prove that the
defendant knew the organisation is a proscribed organisation. Proposed
subsection 102.4(2) provides that strict liability applies to this section.
This is based on the fact that it is not legitimate to be a member of or have
links to an organisation of a kind that could be proscribed. Therefore, the
onus is on the person to make out one of the defences in the proposed section.
Fairness to the individual is safeguarded by the requirement that a proscription
be published in the gazette and newspapers (proposed section 102.2) and by the
defences of ceasing to being a member and having no knowledge of the existence
of grounds for proscription (proposed subsections 102.3(3) and
(4)).
Proposed subsection 102.4(3) creates a defence for a person
prosecuted for an offence against subsection 102.4(1). The defendant must
satisfy all three criteria. First, they must prove that they did not know nor
were reckless that the organisation, or a member of the organisation, had
committed or was committing an offence against this Part. Second, that they did
not know nor were reckless that the UN Security Council had resolved that the
organisation is an international terrorist organisation. Finally, that they did
not know nor were reckless that the organisation was likely to endanger or had
endangered the security or integrity of the Commonwealth or another country.
The defendant bears a legal burden to prove this fact. The legal burden is
outlined at section 13.4 of the Criminal Code. A legal burden of proof on the
defendant must be discharged on the balance of probabilities (section
13.5).
Proposed subsection 102.4(4) creates a defence to
the membership limb of the offence. The defence applies if the person proves
that he or she took all reasonable steps to cease to be a member of the
organisation as soon as practicable after the organisation was proscribed. As
with proposed subsection 102.4(3) the defendant bears a legal burden to prove
this.
Proposed subsection 102.4(5) would apply Category D geographical
jurisdiction, as set out in section 15.4 of the Criminal Code, to the offences
proposed in subsection 102.4(1).
Category D geographical jurisdiction
will be satisfied whether or not the conduct constituting the alleged offence
occurs in Australia; and whether or not a result of the conduct constituting the
alleged offence occurs in Australia. This jurisdiction is appropriate due to
the transnational nature of terrorist activities, and to ensure that a person
cannot escape prosecution or punishment based on a jurisdictional
loophole.
Item 5
Item 5 outlines the application of proposed section 102.2. Once the power
to make declarations has commenced, the Attorney-General can use the power on
the basis of events prior to commencement.
Item 6 - Subsection 4J(7)
This Item repeals subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act and substitutes it
with two new paragraphs, proposed paragraphs 4J(7)(a) and 4J(7)(b). This change
maintains the current rule that the treason offence is not to be dealt with
summarily. The amendment is consequent upon the insertion of Item 2 of Schedule
1 into the Criminal Code.
Item 7 - Subsection 4J(7)
This is an alternate version of Item 6 to deal with the contingency of
the Criminal Code Amendment (Espionage and Related Offences) Act 2002
being enacted before this Bill.
Item 8 - Section 24
This Item repeals the existing treason offence in section 24 of the
Crimes Act consequent upon the insertion of proposed section 80.1 into the
Criminal Code.
Item 9 - Subsection 24AC(1)
This Item removes the reference to section 24 in subsection 24AC(1) of
the Crimes Act consequent upon the insertion of proposed subsection 80.1(3) into
the Criminal Code, because the rules governing institution of proceedings in
section 24AC will now be governed by Division 80.
Item 10 -
Subparagraph 24F(2)(b)(ii)
This Item omits reference to paragraph
24(1)(d) of the Crimes Act and substitutes it with proposed subsection 80.1, in
section 24F of the Crimes Act which provides that certain good faith acts are
not unlawful. This is consequent on the insertion of Item 1 of schedule 1 in
the Criminal Code.
Item 11 - After paragraph 24F(2)(b)
This
item amends subsection 24F(2) of the Crimes Act so that the ‘good
faith’ exemption from criminal liability extends to the broadened treason
offence.
Item 12 - Paragraph 24F(2)(c)
Item 13 -
Paragraph 24F(2)(d)
These items clarify that references to certain
sections in section 24F of the Crimes Act are to Crimes Act sections,
consequential on the inclusion of references to the Criminal Code in section
24F.
Item 14 - Subparagraph 203(1)(c)(i)
Item 15 - After
subparagraph 203(1)(c)(i)
Item 16 - Subparagraph
203(1)(c)(ii)
Item 17 - Subparagraph 203(1)(c)(iia)
These
items update a cross-reference to the treason offence in section 203 of the
Migration Act 1958, to refer instead to the new treason offence in
proposed section 80.1. Section 203 provides for deportation on non-citizens
convicted of certain offences.
This item ensures that a proclamation specifying an enemy of the
Commonwealth under paragraph 24(1)(d) of the Crimes Act, which is in force when
section 24 is repealed and replaced with proposed section 80.1 of the Criminal
Code, can remain in force. The provision has been included in case such
proclamation were made before the commencement of these provisions.
Schedule 2 - Amendments relating to air security officers
The purpose of these amendments is to extend the list of specified
offences in relation to which members of the Australian Protective Service (APS)
may exercise their arrest without warrant powers to include the proposed
terrorist-bombing and terrorism offences. The amendments are necessary as
members of the APS are only empowered to exercise those powers whilst performing
their security and protective function in relation to specified offences. The
amendments will further enhance the role of the APS in combating
terrorism.
Item 1 - After paragraph 13(2)(b)
This item will
insert a new paragraph (ba) into subsection 13(2) of the Act. The new paragraph
will empower members of the APS to exercise powers in relation to the proposed
terrorist-bombing offences, which will be included in Division 72 of the
Criminal Code. This item will commence following the commencement of Division
72 of the Criminal Code.
Item 2 - Before paragraph
13(2)(c)
This item will insert a new paragraph (bb) into subsection
13(2) of the Act. The new paragraph will empower members of the APS to exercise
powers in relation to the proposed terrorism offences, which will be set out in
Division 101 of the Criminal Code. This item will commence following the
commencement of Division 101 of the Criminal Code.
Members of the Australian Protective Service (APS) are currently able to
exercise their arrest without warrant powers in relation to offences set out in
Part 2 of the Crimes (Aviation) Act (in particular the offence of hijacking),
but those offences do not operate on intra-state flights. The purpose of these
amendments is to extend the coverage of those offences to aircraft that are
operating on intra-state flights. This is to ensure that members of the APS who
are engaged as air security officers are able to provide an immediate and
effective anti-hijacking capability for all Australian civil aviation.
Item 3 - Subsection 3(1) (at the end of the definition of
prescribed flight)
This item will insert a new paragraph (c)
into the definition of “prescribed flight” in subsection 3(1) of the
Act to extend that definition to include flights within a State. As offences set
out in Part 2 of the Crimes (Aviation) Act operate on, amongst other things,
prescribed flights this will extend the operation of those offences to those
intra-state flights.
Item 4 - After section 8
The amendment proposed by this item is consequential on the amendment
proposed by Item 3. It will insert a new section 8A into the Act to set out the
circumstances in which a flight will be regarded as being within a State for the
purposes of the definition of a prescribed flight.