Koh, Kheng-Lian --- "Asian Environmental Protection in Natural Resources and Sustainable Development: Convergence Versus Divergence?" [2007] MqJlICEnvLaw 3; (2007) 4(1) Macquarie Journal of International and Comparative Environmental Law 43
* Professor of Law, National University of Singapore and Director, Asia-Pacific Centre for Environmental Law; Paper originally presented at the 3rd Asian Law Institute Conference, Shanghai, China, 25-26 May 2006.
1 ASEAN Vision 2020, Kuala Lumpur, 15 December 1997, <http://www/aseansec.org/ 1814.htm> 28 May 2007.
[2] The ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok Declaration), Bangkok, 8 August 1967, see Kheng-Lian Koh (compiler), Selected ASEAN Documents on the Environment, APCEL Document Series, 1996, ii-iv, <http://www.aseansec.org/1212.htm
> 28 May 2007. The founder members were Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
[3] Rodolfo C. Severino, ASEAN Report to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Paper presented at the WSSD, Johnannesburg, 26 August-4 September 2002) 24 <http://www. aseansec.org/pdf/WSSD.pdf> 28 May 2007.
[4] ‘Rescuing ASEAN’s Mega-biodiversity’ <http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/Article/Article2002/ sept/ sept15c.html> 28 May 2007.
[5] The ASEAN Way emphasizes three main features: decision by consensus (musyawarah) rather than rules; non-intervention in each others’ domestic affairs; and application of the doctrine of sovereignty (infra).
[6] Kuala Lumpur Declaration on the Establishment of the ASEAN Charter, Kuala Lumpur, 12 December 2005 <http://www.aseansec.org/18030.htm
> 28 May 2007.
[7] ASEAN Vision 2020, above n 1.
[8] ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, opened for signature 9 July 1985 (not yet entered into force) <http://www.aseansec.org/1490.htm
> 28 May 2007.
[9] ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, opened for signature 10 June 2002 (entered into force November 2003) <http://www.aseansec.org/agr_haze.pdf >
28 May 2007.
[10] Letter from the Thai Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 10 June B.E.2545 (2002).
[11] Draft ASEAN Framework Agreement on Access to Biological and Genetic Resources (24 February 2000) <http://www.grain.org./docs/asean-access-2000-en.pdf
> 28 May 2007.
[12] Nicholas A Robinson, Strategies Toward Sustainable Development: Implementing Agenda 21 (2004) 10.
[13] Edith Brown Weiss (ed), International Compliance with Nonbinding Accords (1997).
[14] ASEAN Charter, above n 6.
[15] The Straits Times (Singapore), 13 December 2005, 6.
[16] See eg Declaration of ASEAN Concord II (Bali Concord II) 7 October 2003 <http://www.aseansec.org/15159.htm> 28 May 2007.
[17] Kheng-Lian Koh and N A Robinson, ‘Strengthening Sustainable Development in Regional Inter-Governmental Governance: Lessons from the ‘ASEAN Way’ (2002) 6 Singapore Journal of International & Comparative Law 640; Kheng-Lian Koh and N A Robinson, ‘Regional Environmental Governance: Examining the Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ in D C Esty and M H Ivanova (eds), Global Environmental Governance: Options & Opportunities (2002) 101.
[18] The ASEAN Declaration, above n 2.
[19] Environmental concerns came later but were approached through the ASEAN Way.
[20] The Straits Times (Singapore),17 March 2006, Review 25, excerpts from Gretchen Liu (ed), Singapore Foreign Service: The First Forty Years (2006).
[21] See his Press Briefing on Flexible Engagement, Manila, 24 July 1998.
[22] Declaration of the ASEAN Concord I (Bali, Indonesia, 24 February 1976) <http://www. aseansec.org/1216.htm> at 29 March 2006.
[23] Report of the Eminent Persons Group on the ASEAN Charter (ASEAN: 2006); Cebu Declaration on the Blueprint of the ASEAN Charter <http://www.aseansec.org/19257.htm
> March 2007; (The Cebu Declaration, 13 January 2007 reiterates ASEAN’s ‘conviction that an ASEAN Charter will serve as a firm foundation in achieving one ASEAN Community by providing an enhanced institutional framework as well as conferring a legal personality to ASEAN’) <http://www.sunstar.com.ph/blogs/asean/?p=244
> 1 March 2007.
[24] Declaration of ASEAN Concord II (Bali, Indonesia, 7 October 2003) <http://www.aseansec.org/15159.htm
> 29 March 2006.
[25] Charter of the United Nations, opened for signature 26 June 1945 (entered into force 24 October 1945) art 2(7) <http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/chapter1.htm> 29 March 2006.
[26] Resolution on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, G.A Res 1803 17th sess, 1194th plen mtg, UN Doc A/5217 (1962). Many ASEAN instruments have incorporated the UN Charter as well as the above resolution.
[27] Thailand’s Non-Paper on Flexible Engagement (NPFE 98) <http://thaiembdc.org/pr/ pr743.htm> 28 May 2007.
[28] Ibid.
[29] Ibid.
[30] ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, above n 9.
[31] ‘Rewriting the ASEAN Way’, The Straits Times (Singapore), 13 December 2005.
[32] ‘New Charter to signal need for reform in Myanmar’, The Straits Times (Singapore), 13 December 2005.
[33] ‘Task Force on Drafting ASEAN Charter meets in Vietnam’, 19-21 April 2007, Hanoi, <http://english.people.com.cn/200704/20/eng20070420_368280.html
> 28 May 2007.
[34] Locknie Hsu, ‘Towards an ASEAN Charter: Some Thoughts from the Legal Perspective’ in Rodolfo C Severino (comp), Framing the ASEAN Charter: An ISEAS Perspective (2005) 45.
[35] The Agreement will enter into force after the sixth ratification, Article 33; Kheng-Lian Koh, ‛ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1985: A Study in Environmental Governance’ in Diane Pansky (ed), Governance Stream of the Vth World Parks Congress (2005).
[36] Convention on Biological Diversity, opened for signature 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79 (entered into force 29 December 1993).
[37] Ibid, < http://www.cbd.int/default.shtml
> 28 May 2007.
[38] Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, opened for signature 23 June 1979 (entered into force 1 November 1983) 19 ILM 15.
[39] Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, opened for signature 3 March 1973 (entered into force 1 July 1975) 993 UNTS 243.
[40] ASEAN Agreement on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, above n 8.
[41] ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, above n 9.
[42] Letter from the Thai Ministry, above n 10.
[43] Alan Tan Khee Jin, ‘The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution: Prospects for Compliance and Effectiveness in Post-Suharto Indonesia’ [2005] New York University Environmental Law Journal 647.
[44] ASEAN Framework Agreement on Access to Biological and Genetic Resources (Draft 24 February 2000) <http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:uD3C3M4ULyMJ:www.grain.org/
brl_files/asean-access-2000-en.pdf+ASEAN+Agreement+access+to+Biological+resources
&hl=en&gl=sg&ct=clnk&cd=2> 29 March 2006.
[45] The success of the implementation of these instruments depends on the extent to which the member states ratify the 1985 ASEAN Agreement on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and adopt the various soft law instruments at the national level.
[46] <http://www.aseansec.org/14547.htm
> 29 March 2006.
[47] Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, opened for signature 23 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 (entered into force 15 December 1975).
[48] The forerunner was the ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks and Reserves, 1984, which was narrower in scope as it was adopted before the CBD in 1992, and before the inclusion of the six new ASEAN member states. These examples demonstrate the progressive development of ASEAN Heritage Parks which today sees the designation of Heritage Parks in each of its member states. Kheng-Lian Koh, ‘Landscape/Seascape Protection in ASEAN: Challenges and Opportunities’ in Antonio H Benjamin (ed), Landscape, Nature and Law (2005) 103; Kheng-Lian Koh, ‘Land Stewardship and the Law: ASEAN Heritage Parks and Transboundary Biodiversity Conservation’ in Chalifour, Nolon, Lye and Kameri-Mbote (eds), Land Use for Sustainable Development (in press).
[49] ASEAN Working Group on Marine and Coastal Environment <http://www.aseansec.org/ 14541.htm> 29 March 2006.
[50] AEAN Working Group on Water Resource Management <http://www.gwpseatac.ait.ac.th/ aseanwrm.htm> 29 March 2006.
[51] Under the ASEAN Australia Development Cooperation Programme – Regional Partnership Scheme, the ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resources Management (Oct 2005) was published, <www.aseansec.org/awgwrm/ASEAN%20Strategic%20Plan%20of% 20Action%20on%20Water%20Resources%20Management.pdf
> 28 May 2007; See also, ASEAN Long Term Strategic Plan for Water Resources Management, 2003 (unpublished – document supplied to writer by the ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta).
[52] ASEAN Regional Centre for Biological Conservation <http://www.arcbc.org.ph/default.html> 23 May 2007;
ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity <http://www.aseanbiodiversity.org/> 25 May 2007.
[53] WSSD Plan of Implementation <http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/documents/ summit_docs/2309_planfinal.htm> para 42.
[54] ASEAN Linkages Outside the Region <http://www.aseasec.org/11849.htm
> 25 May 2007.
[55] Kuala Lumpur Declaration on the East Asia Summit, 14 December 2005. <http://www.aseansec.org/18098.htm
> 25 May 2007.
[56] Manila Declaration on the ASEAN Environment, 30 April 1981 <http:/www.aseansec.org/ 1493.htm> 25 May 2007.
[57] Singapore Resolution on Environment and Development, 18 February 1992 <http://www.aseansec.org/6083.htm> 29 March 2006.
[58] United Nations Conference on Environment and Development <http://www.un.org/geninfo/bp/ enviro.html> 27 May 2007.
[59] World Summit on Sustainable Development <http://www.un.org./events/wssd> 27 May 2007.
[60] ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on the Environment 1994-1998, <http://www.aseansec.org/ 8950.htm> 27 May 2007.
[61] Hanoi Plan of Action (Protection of the Environment) <http://www.aseansec.org/ cme.HPA.ppt> 27 May 2007.
[62] Cielito F Habito, Fernando T Aldaba, and Ofelia M Templo, An Assessment Study on the Progress of ASEAN Regional Integration: The Ha Noi Plan of Action toward ASEAN Vision 2020 (2004).
[63] Vientiane Action Programme (VAP) 2004-2010 <http://www.aseansec.org/Publ_VAP.pdf-it.pdf
> 27 May 2007.
[64] Obtained from ASEAN Secretariat.
[65] Obtained from ASEAN Secretariat.
[66] <http://www.aseansec.org/1491.htm> 29 March 2006.
[67] Obtained from ASEAN Secretariat.
[68] Obtained from ASEAN Secretariat.
[69] <http://www.aseansec.org/15524.htm> 29 March 2006.
[70] <http://www.aseansec.org/6175.htm> 29 March 2006.
[71] <http://www.aseansec.org/6226.htm
> 29 March 2006.
[72] <http://www.aseansec.org/6177.htm
> 29 March 2006.
[73] <http://www.aseansec.org/1338.htm
> 29 March 2006.
[74] <http://www.aseansec.org/14745.htm
> 29 March 2006.
[75] <http://www.aseansec.org/aviation_sars.htm
> at 29 March 2006.
[76] <http://www.aseansec.org/14749.htm
> 29 March 2006.
[77] <http://www.aseansec.org/14746.htm> 29 March 2006.
[78] <http://www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/Meetings_joint_statement-asean3.pdf> 29 March 2006.
[79] <http://www.aseansec.org/18101.htm
> 29 March 2006.
[80] <http://www.aseansec.org/1895.htm
> 29 March 2006.
[81] http://www.aseansec.org/16470.htm 29 March 2006.
[82] <http://www.traffic.org/news/ASEAN.html> 29 March 2006.
[83] <http://www.aseansec.org/17933.htm> 29 March 2006.
[84] ‘Mud wipes out Philippines Village’, reported BBC News: Asia-Pacific 17 February 2006 <http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/02/18/philippines.landslide/index.html> 28 May 2007.
[85] Framework for ASEAN Regional Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests <http://www.aseansec.org/630.htm> 29 March 2006; http://www.aseansec.org/agr_pub/forest1.doc> 27 May 2007.
[86] ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks and Reserves (Bangkok, 1984) above n 66.
[87] ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks, above n 69.
[88] Apichai Sunchindah, ‘ASEAN Initiatives in Protected Areas Management’ (paper presented at the Second Regional Forum for Southeast Asia of the IUCN WCPA, Pakse, Laos, 6-11 December 1999); Kheng-Lian Koh, ‘Land Stewardship and the Law: ASEAN Heritage Parks and Transboundary Biodiversity Conservation’ in Chalifour, Nolon, Lye and Kameri-Mbote (eds), Land Use for Sustainable Development (in press); see also Kheng-Lian Koh, ‘Landscape/Seascape Protection in ASEAN: Challenges and Opportunities’ in Antonio H Benjamin (ed), Landscape, Nature and Law (2005) 103.
[89] Above n 66.
[90] Kheng-Lian Koh, ‘ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1985: A Study in Environmental Governance’ (paper presented at the Vth IUCN World Parks Congress on Protected Areas, Durban, 8-17 September 2003) <http://law.nus.edu.sg/apcel/ publications/pub/kohkhenglian/ASEANPaper.pdf> 27 May 2007.
[91] Kheng-Lian Koh, ‘Conventions and their Implications on the ASEAN States’ (paper presented at the Environmental Management Seminar for Southeast Asia, Cavite, Philippines, 6-17 October 1997).
[92] Above n 8.
[93] ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on the Environment 1994-1998, <http://www.aseansec.org/8950.htm> 29 March 2006. The above quotation is not found on the above website which only gives a summary. However, the writer has a copy of the original version which includes this paragraph under Strategy 5.1; Kheng-Lian Koh (compiler), Selected ASEAN Documents on the Environment (APCEL Document Series) 1996, 207.
[94] Hanoi Plan of Action 1999-2004, above n 61.
[95] ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks (Yangon, Myanmar, 18 December 2003) above n 69.
[96] Above n 36;<http://www.biodiv.org/convention/articles.asp> 29 March 2006.
[97] <http://www.biodiv.org/meetings/cop-07/default.asp> 29 March 2006.
[98] Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) opened for signature 2 February 1971, 1971 UNTS 14583 (entered into force 21 December 1975).
[99] Above n 8.
[100] <http://www.aseansec.org/6185.htm> 29 March 2006.
[101] World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (1987) (the Brundtland Report).
[102] Above n 39.
[103] ASEAN Statement on CITES (Bangkok, 11 October 2004) <http://www.aseansec.org/ 16470.htm> at 28 May 2007.
[104] Jolene Lin, ‘Tackling Southeast Asia’s Illegal Wildlife Trade’ (2005) 9 Singapore Year Book of International Law 191.
[105] Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act 2006 (Singapore) <htt7p://agcvldb4.agc.gov.sg> 28 May 2007.
[106] See Kheng-Lian Koh, ‘One World-One Health, Avian Flu & SARS: The Policy and Legal Challenges of Zoonotic Diseases’. <http://www.sde.nus.edu.sg/MEM/seminars/One%20 World%20One%20Health%20s%27pore.ppt> (paper presented at a Workshop on The Threat of Emerging Diseases to Human Security and Conservation, and the Implications for Public Policy, Bangkok, Thailand, 15 November 2004) (see <http://www.iucn-vsg.org>; For an updated version of this paper in PowerPoint, see <http://www.sde.nus.edu.sg/MEM/seminars/ One%20World%20One%20Health%20s%27pore.ppt>. ‘Avian flu early warning system given green light’ <http://www.cic-wildlife.org/index.php?id=185>; Convention on Migratory Species, Resolution 8.27 [CMS_COP8[1].pdf]; Ramsar Convention, Resolution IX.23 – Highly pathogenic avian influenza and its consequences for wetland and waterbird conservation and wise use <http://www.ramsar.org/res/key_res_ix_23_e.htm
>;Convention on Migratory Species – Migratory Species and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza – <http://www.cms.int/bodies.COP/cop8/documents/proceedings/pdf/eng/CPRes_8_27_Avian_Influenza_eng_rev_pdf> at 3 February 2006.
[107] Above n 63.
[108] Above n 63, Annex 3: 1.7.13.
[109] ‘Migratory Birds to Blame?’ see The Straits Times (Singapore), 29 January 2004.
[110] Rodolfo C Severino, (Speech delivered at the joint conference of INSEAD and the Asia-Europe Foundation on Regional Integration in Europe and Asia: Pasts, Presents and Futures, Singapore, 7-8 July 2003); See also Rodolfo C Severino, ‘The ASEAN Way and The Rule of Law’ (Speech delivered at the International Law Conference on ASEAN Legal Systems and regional Integration, Kuala Lumpur, 3 September 2001) <http://www.aseansec.org/2849.htm
> 28 May 2007.
[111] Above n 80.
[112] WT/DS58/AB/R, Decision of the WTO Appellate Body, adopted 6 November 1998. This case deals with Article XX of the GATT 1994, para g. The Appellants included two ASEAN countries, namely, Malaysia and Thailand.
[113] Ibid 185.
[114] The Straits Times (Singapore), 9 February 2005.
[115] Lyrics by the Malaysian Foreign Minister, Dato’ Seri Syed Hamid Albar, presented at the 13th Non-Aligned Movement Summit, Kuala Lumpur, 20-25 February 2003; also presented at the 39th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, 22-28 July 2006, Kuala Lumpur, <http://web5.bernama.com/events/amm/?type=ts> 28 May 2007.