Glover, Peter --- "Conventions, Norms and Claims - The Legal Authority for Australian Forces to Interdict Foreign Flag Vessels on the High Seas under the Proliferation Security Initiative" [2006] MarStudies 18; (2006) 149 Maritime Studies 1

^[1] Peter Glover is a Melbourne based solicitor and holds a Master Class 1 certificate of competency.

^[2] Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Note by the President of the Security Council S/23500 (2005) <http://projects.sipri.se/cbw/docs/cbw-unsc 23500.html viewed 24 November 2005.

^[3] Meaning nuclear, chemical or biological weapons.

^[4] President George W. Bush, ‘Graduation Speech at West Point United States Military Academy’. Speech delivered at the graduation ceremony of West Point military cadets, West Point, New York, 1 June 2002.

^[5] A Persbo & I Davis, ‘Sailing Into Unchartered Waters? The Proliferation Security Initiative and the Law of the Sea’, BASIC Research Report, no. 2, 2004, British American Security Information Council, 2004, p. 26.

^[6] The White House, National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction, 2002, p. 2. Available at <http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/12/WMDStrategy.pdf viewed 24 November 2005.

^[7] The White House, The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, 2005, p. 14. Available at <http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.pdf viewed 24 November 2005.

^[8] MA Becker, ‘The Shifting Public Order of the Oceans: Freedom of Navigation and the Interdiction of Ships at Sea’, Harvard International Law Journal, vol. 46, 2005, p. 152.

^[9] SE Logan, ‘The Proliferation Security Initiative: Navigating the Legal Challenges’, Journal of Transnational Law & Policy, vol. 14, no. 2, 2005, p. 253.

^[10] The boarding operation took place 600 nautical miles from the coast of Yemen. See MA. Becker, loc. cit.

^[11] J Joseph, The Proliferation Security Initiative: Can Interdiction Stop Proliferation?, Arms Control Association, 2004 <http://www.armscontrol.org/act/ 2004_06/Joseph.asp?print viewed 21 November 2005.

^[12] J Granoff, J Harrington & BD Jenkins, ‘Arms Control and National Security’, The International Lawyer, vol. 38, no. 2, 2004, p. 2.

^[13] J King et al., ‘Spain: U.S. apologises over Scud ship’, 2002, <http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/ east/12/12/missile.ship/ viewed 21 November 2005.

^[14] AC Winner, ‘The Proliferation Security Initiative: The New Face of Interdiction’, The Washington Quarterly, vol. 28, 2, 2005, p. 131.

^[15] Becker, loc, cit.

^[16] Right of visit.

^[17] United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, opened for signature on 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 3 (entered into force 16 November 1994) <http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm viewed 24 November 2005.

^[18] United Nations, Chronological list of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements as at 20 September 2005, 2005, <http://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm#The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea viewed 20 November 2005.

^[19] SS Yang, Legal Basis for State Interception of Shipments on High Seas: Legality of the Naval Interdiction under the ‘Proliferation Security Initiative’, Thesis, Brooklyn Law School, 2003 p. 7. Available at <http://www.lcnp.org/disarmament/MEMO NK_interdiction.PDF viewed 24 October 2005.

^[20] UNCLOS, art 110(1)(d), op. cit.

^[21] The Missile Technology Control Regime <http://www.mtcr.info/english/ viewed 24 November 2005. Not being a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime it is arguable North Korea had a ‘right to sell missiles, and probably has sold them to Iran, Pakistan, Syria and others.’ See Granoff et al., loc, cit.

^[22] J King et al., loc. cit.

^[23] Treaty for the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, opened for signature 1 July 1968, 21 U.S.T. 483, 729 U.N.T.S. 161 (entered into force 5 March 1970). Note on 11 January 2003 North Korea announced its intention to withdraw from the Treaty and accordingly relieve itself of formal obligations not to engage in the trafficking of WMD. See FL Kirgis, North Korea’s Withdrawal From the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (2003) The American Society of International Law <http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh96.htm viewed 24 November 2005.

^[24] Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction, opened for signature on 13 January 1993, 1974 UNTS 317 (entered into force 29 April 1997).

^[25] Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction, signed at Washington, London and Moscow 10 April 1972, 1015 UNTS 163 (entered into force 26 March 1975).

^[26] Granoff et al., loc, cit.

^[27] The Institute for Counterterrorism, French Tanker Explosion Confirmed as Terror Attack (2002) <http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm?id=837 viewed 18 September 2005.

^[28] US Department of Defense, DoD USS Cole Commission Report – Executive Summary, 2001, <http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/cole20010109.html viewed 25 November 2005.

^[29] The White House, Statement on Proliferation Security Initiative, 2003, <http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/ releases/2003/09/20030904-10.html viewed 20 November 2005.

^[30] Persbo & Davis, op. cit., p. 4.

^[31] Testimony to Committee on International Relations, United States House of Representatives, Washington, D.C., 4 June 2003 (John R. Bolton) <http://wwwa. house.gov/international_relations/108/bolt0604.htm viewed 25 November 2005.

^[32] Granoff et al., loc. cit. p. 3.

^[33] RT Grey Jr., ‘North Korea up in Arms’ The Washington Times (Washington, DC) 14 August 2003. Available at <http://www.gsinstitute.org/archives/ 000186.shtml viewed 20 October 2005.

^[34] US Department of State, Japanese Regional Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) Maritime Interdiction Exercise (Team Samurai ‘04), 2004, <http://www.state.gov/t/np/rls/fs/37371.htm viewed 26 November 2005.

^[35] US Department of State, What is the Proliferation Security Initiative?, 2004, <http://www.state.gov/t/np /rls/other/34726.htm viewed 26 November 2005.

^[36] Winner, op. cit., p. 135.

^[37] A complete list of all of the countries showing support for the initiative and its principles has never been disclosed. See F Pothier, The Proliferation Security Initiative: Towards a New Anti-Proliferation Consensus? 2004, British American Security Information Council <http://www.basicint.org/pubs/ Notes/BN041118.htm viewed 26 November 2005.

^[38] GH Oosthuizen & E Wilmshurst, Terrorism and Weapons of Mass Destruction: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540, Briefing Paper 04/01, Chatham House, 2004, p. 8. Available at <http:// www.riia.org/pdf/research/il/BP0904.pdf viewed 18 November 2005.

^[39] US Department of State, Proliferation Security Initiative: Chairman’s Statement at the Second Meeting 2003, <http://www.state.gov/t/np/rls/other/25377.htm viewed 25 September 2005.

^[40] ibid.

^[41] The Hon. Alexander Downer, MP, ‘Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Greatest Threat to International Security’, Speech delivered at the Proliferation Security Initiative, Brisbane, 9 July 2003.

^[42] Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Proliferation Security Initiative: Statement by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Spokesperson, 2003, <http://www. diplomatie.gouv.fr/actu/article.gb.asp?ART=36865 viewed 26 November 2005.

^[43] US Diplomatic Mission to Italy, White House Statement, Facts on Proliferation Security, 2003, <http://www.usembassy.it/file2003_09/alia/a3090518.htm viewed 25 September 2005.

^[44] Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI), 2005, <http://www.dfat.gov. au/globalissues/psi/ viewed 25 September 2005.

^[45] 12-14 September 2003. See Proliferation Security Initiative, Past Exercises, 2005, <http://www. proliferationsecurity.info/exercises.php viewed 25 November 2005.

^[46] Senator the Hon. Robert Hill, ‘Exercise Pacific Protector’, Press Release, 9 September 2003, <http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/Hilltpl.cfm?CurrentId=3111 viewed 27 November 2005.

^[47] RR Churchill & AV Lowe, The Law of the Sea, 3rd edn, 1999, p. 181.

^[48] JK Elsea, ‘Weapons of Mass Destruction Counterproliferation: Legal Issues for Ships and Aircraft’, CRS Report for Congress, Federation of American Scientists, 2003, 11. Available at <http://www.fas.org/ spp/starwars/crs/RL32097.pdf viewed 20 October 2005.

^[49] Churchill & Lowe, op. cit., p. 61.

^[50] UNCLOS, art 3.

^[51] UNCLOS, art 33. UNCLOS, art 33, retains the contiguous zone and gives coastal States the same powers as they have under Art. 24 of the 1958 Territorial Sea Convention, with the limited exception found in Art. 303(2).

^[52] Churchill & Lowe, op. cit., p. 132.

^[53] UNCLOS, art 33(2).

^[54] UNCLOS, art 55.

^[55] UNCLOS, art 57.

^[56] Churchill & Lowe, op. cit., p. 160.

^[57] UNCLOS, art 86.

^[58] UNCLOS, art 87(2).

^[59] D Chafee, Freedom or Force on the High Seas? Arms Interdiction and International Law, 2003, http://www.wagingpeace.org/articles/2003/08/15_chaffee_freedom-of-force.htm viewed 28 November 2005.

^[60] MS McDougal & WT Burke, The Public Order of the Oceans – A Contemporary International Law of the Sea, 1962, p. 869.

^[61] Becker, op. cit., p. 175.

^[62] Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Statement of Interdiction Principles, 2003, <http://www.diplomatie. gouv.fr/actu/article.gb.asp?ART=36866 viewed 26 November 2005.

^[63] K Wong, ‘Maritime Security Warning’, Australian Financial Review, Sydney, 2 September 2005, p. 5. Mr Beazley’s comments were made in the shadow of the passage from Newcastle to Gladstone of an Antiguan-flagged vessel carrying 3,000 tonnes of ammonium nitrate, an agricultural fertiliser that has been used in terrorist bombings.

^[64] United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 2005, <http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ viewed 28 November 2005.

^[65] UNCLOS, art 19(2)(a).

^[66] ME Beck, ‘The Promise and Limits of the PSI’, The Monitor, vol. 10, no. 1, 2004, p. 16.

^[67] UNCLOS, art 19(2)(a).

^[68] Logan, op. cit., p. 259.

^[69] Logan, op. cit., p. 260.

^[70] A foreign vessel engaged in the carriage of nuclear or other inherently dangerous or noxious substances is required to comply with the administrative requirements under Article 23. See UNCLOS, art 23.

^[71] Bipartisan Security Group, The Proliferation Security Initiative – The Legal Challenge, Policy Brief, Bipartisan Security Group, 2003, p. 2. Available at <http://www.gsinstitute.org/gsi/pubs/09_03_psi_brief.pdf viewed 25 November 2005.

^[72] US Department of State, Proliferation Security Initiative Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) <http://www.state.gov/t/np/rls/fs/46839.htm viewed 25 September 2005.

^[73] Persbo & Davis, op. cit., p. 39.

^[74] Treaty for the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, opened for signature 1 July 1968, 21 U.S.T. 483, 729 UNTS 161 (entered into force 5 March 1970). Note on 11 January 2003 North Korea announced its intention to withdraw from the Treaty and accordingly relieve itself of formal obligations not to engage in the trafficking of WMD. See Kirgis, op. cit.

^[75] R Lapidoth, ‘Freedom of Navigation and the New Law of the Sea’, Israel Law Review, vol. 10, 1975, p. 456.

^[76] ibid., p. 458.

^[77] IA Shearer, ‘Problems of Jurisdiction and Law Enforcement Against Delinquent Vessels’, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 35, 1986 p. 336.

^[78] UNCLOS, art 110(1)(a)-(e).

^[79] Churchill and Lowe, op. cit., p. 264.

^[80] D Ensor, U.S. gets tough over WMD trade, 2003, <http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/12/02/wmd. warning/ viewed 25 September 2005.

^[81] Downer, loc. cit.

^[82] UNCLOS, art 33(1)(a).

^[83] Logan, op. cit., p. 266.

^[84] Becker, op. cit., p. 196.

^[85] Churchill & Lowe, op. cit., pp. 171-2.

^[86] UNCLOS, art 56(1)(b)(iii).

^[87] Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment.

^[88] UNCLOS, art 56(2).

^[89] Logan, op. cit., pp. 266-7.

^[90] The Case of the S.S. Lotus (France v Turkey), 1927, P.C.I.J. Ser. A., No. 10, 4, 25. Available at <http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1927.09.07_lotus/option_ii/1927.09.07_lotus.pdf viewed 28 November 2005.

^[91] Shearer, op. cit., p. 339.

^[92] UNCLOS, art 92(1).

^[93] Churchill & Lowe, op. cit., p. 218. For example, the US and the UK concluded an agreement in 1981 to facilitate the interdiction by the US in defined areas of the Caribbean British-flag vessels suspected of trafficking in drugs. See Churchill & Lowe, op. cit., p. 219.

^[94] Immunity of warships on the high seas.

^[95] Immunity of ships used only on government non-commercial service.

^[96] Right of visit.

^[97] For the effect of a crude nuclear terrorist attack on New York City see Persbo & Davis, op. cit., p. 36.

^[98] Logan, op. cit., p. 267.

^[99] US Department of State, Proliferation Security Initiative Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ), loc, cit.

^[100] Yang, op. cit., p. 6.

^[101]R Weiner, Proliferation Security Initiative to Stem Flow of WMD Materiel (sic), 2003, Center for Nonproliferation Studies, <http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/ week/030716.htm viewed 10 November 2005.

^[102]Charter of the United Nations art 2(4).

^[103]The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, September 2002. Available at <http://www. whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.pdf viewed 18 November 2005.

^[104]Persbo & Davis, op. cit., p. 82.

^[105]The Avalon Project, Webster-Ashburton Treaty – The Caroline Case, 2005, Yale Law School <http://www. yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/britain/br-1842d. htm viewed 23 November 2005.

^[106]T McCormack, ‘The Use of Force’ in S Blay, R Piotrowicz & M Tsamenyi (eds), Public International Law: An Australian Perspective, 2nd edn, 2005, p. 225.

^[107]The Avalon Project, loc. cit.

^[108]C Robinson, The Proliferation Security Initiative: Naval Intervention Bush-Style, 2003, Center for Defense Information, <http://www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/ printversion.cfm?documentID=1667 viewed 2 October 2005.

^[109]The White House, President Bush Addresses United Nations General Assembly, 2003, <http://www. whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/09/20030923-4.html viewed 12 October 2005.

^[110]Resolution on the Non-proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, UNSCR 1540, UN Doc S/Res/1540, 2004, available at <http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/ UNDOC/GEN/N04/328/43/PDF/N0432843.pdf?OpenElement viewed 26 October 2005.

^[111]HN Warden IV, Overcoming Challenges to the Proliferation Security Initiative, Master of Arts in Security Studies Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, 2004, p. 42.

^[112]Oosthuizen & Wilmshurst, loc. cit.

^[113]Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v Iceland) (Merits) [1974] ICJ Rep 3, 50 (para. 16).

^[114]As at 28 November 2005. See United Nations, List of Member States, 2005, <http://www.un.org/Overview/ unmember.html viewed 28 November 2005.

^[115]North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v Denmark and The Netherlands) (Merits) [1969] ICJ Rep 3.

^[116]ibid.

^[117]China has stated that Article 110 renders the PSI impermissible. See DA Simon, The Proliferation Security Initiative: What Comes Next? A Research Report Submitted to Air Force Fellows, Air University, 2005, p. 13. Available at <http://www.wcfia.harvard. edu/fellows/papers/2004-05/simon.pdf viewed 18 October 2005.

^[118]C Kremmer, ‘High Stakes on the high seas in Korean blockade’, Sydney Morning Herald (Sydney) 12 July 2003. Available at <http://www.smh.com.au/articles/ 2003/07/11/1057783354653.html viewed 25 September 2005.

^[119]Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries (United Kingdom v Norway) (Merits) [1951] ICJ Rep 116.

^[120]TTB Koh, ‘A Constitution for the Oceans.’ Remarks by TTB Koh of Singapore – President of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Montego Bay, 6 and 11 December 1982.

^[121]UNCLOS, preamble.

^[122]International Maritime Organization, Introduction to IMO, 2005, <http://www.imo.org/home.asp viewed 23 October 2005.

^[123]The hijacking took place approx. 30 nautical miles off Port Said and resulted in the death of an American passenger. See G Plant, ‘The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation’, 1990, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 39, p. 27.

^[124]GA Res 40/61, 108th plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/40/61 (1985) para. 13. Available at <http://www.un.org/ documents/ga/res/40/a40r061.htm viewed 23 October 2005.

^[125]The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation entered into force on 1 March 1992.

^[126]Select Committee on Foreign Affairs Sixth Report, The Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI), 2005, The United Kingdom Parliament <http://www.publications. parliament.uk/pa/cm200405/cmselect/cmfaff/36/3612.htm#note548 viewed 28 November 2005.

^[127]In particular the 1890 General Act for the Suppression of the Slave Trade. See Churchill & Lowe, op. cit., p. 212.

^[128]Becker, op. cit., p. 179.

^[129]D Chaffee, ‘Freedom or Force on the High Seas? Arms Interdiction and International Law’, 2004, Science for Democratic Action, vol. 12, no. 3, p. 7.

^[130]Federal Information & News Dispatch, Cyprus, U.S. Sign Counterproliferation Ship-boarding Pact – New agreement does not apply to third-party states’ vessels, 2005, US Department of State, <http://global.factiva. com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/arch.display.asp viewed 25 September 2005.

^[131]Rajesh Joshi, ‘Cyprus signs up to US ship boarding security initiative’, Lloyd’s List (New York), 27 July 2005. Available at <http://globalfactiva.com.ezproxy. library.uq.edu.au/en/arch/display.asp viewed 25 September 2005.

^[132]Over the last 30 years maritime trade has increased 220 percent, from 2.5 billion tons of cargo in 1970 to 5.5 billion tons in 2002. See B Coffin, ‘Rough Water’, Risk Management, vol. 50, no. 3, 2003, p. 10.

^[133]Baltic and International Maritime Council, International Shipping – Carrier of World Trade, 2005, BIMCO <http://www.bimco.dk/Corporate%20Area/Press%20releases/INTERNATIONAL%20SHIPPING%20-%20%20 CARRIER%20OF%20WORLD%20TRADE.aspx viewed 28 September 2005.

^[134]Due to the figures for trade estimates traditionally being expressed in terms of tonnes or tonne-miles. See Shipping Facts, Shipping & World Trade – Value of volume of world trade by sea, 2005, <http://www. marisec.org/shippingfacts/worldtradevolume.htm viewed 28 September 2005.

^[135]ibid.

^[136]ibid.

^[137]Baltic and International Maritime Council, loc. cit.

^[138]Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, loc. cit.

^[138]Table adapted from Becker, op. cit.