de Plevitz, Loretta --- "Briginshaw 'Standard of Proof' in Anti-Discrimination Law: 'Pointing with a Wavering Finger'" [2003] MelbULawRw 13; (2003) 27(2) Melbourne University Law Review 308
[*] BA (UNSW), LLB (Hons), PhD (QUT); Lecturer, Faculty of Law, Queensland University of Technology.
[1] O’Callaghan v Loder [1984] EOC 92-024.
[2] The ‘Briginshaw standard of proof’ was articulated in the High Court decision of Briginshaw v Briginshaw [1938] HCA 34; (1938) 60 CLR 336 (‘Briginshaw’). As this article makes clear, the test is more a means of highlighting the standard of required evidence in civil cases than an actual standard of proof.
[3] O’Callaghan v Loder [1984] EOC 92-024, 75 511 (Mathews J, Members Thiering and Swinbourne).
[4] John Dyson Heydon, Cross on Evidence (6th ed, 2000) 247.
[5] Rejfek v McElroy [1965] HCA 46; (1965) 112 CLR 517, 521–2 (Barwick CJ, Kitto, Taylor, Menzies and Windeyer JJ).
[6] Sodeman v The King [1936] HCA 75; (1936) 55 CLR 192, 216 (Dixon J).
[7] [1938] HCA 34; (1938) 60 CLR 336.
[8] Ibid 372 (McTiernan J).
[9] Ibid 350.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid 361–2.
[12] Neat Holdings Pty Ltd v Karajan Holdings Pty Ltd [1992] HCA 66; (1992) 110 ALR 449, 449–50 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane and Gaudron JJ).
[13] Sir Owen Dixon, ‘The Development of the Law of Homicide’ (Speech delivered at the First Convention of the Law Council of Australia, Melbourne, 31 October 1935). Sir Owen Dixon was discussing the recently decided English case of Woolmington v DPP [1935] AC 462 and Sankey LC’s famous ‘golden thread’ speech (at 481).
[14] Dutt v Central Coast Area Health Service [2002] NSWADT 133 (Unreported, Judicial Member Rice, Members Alt and McDonald, 6 August 2002) [47] (Judicial Member Rice, Members Alt and McDonald).
[15] [1992] HCA 66; (1992) 110 ALR 449, 449–50 (citations in original).
[16] See, eg, Hocking v Bell [1945] HCA 16; (1945) 71 CLR 430, 500 (Dixon J); Rejfek v McElroy [1965] HCA 46; (1965) 112 CLR 517, 519–21.
[17] Briginshaw [1938] HCA 34; (1938) 60 CLR 336, 362 (Dixon J); Helton v Allen [1940] HCA 20; (1940) 63 CLR 691, 701 (Starke J); Hocking v Bell [1944] NSWStRp 31; (1944) 44 SR (NSW) 468, 477 (Davidson J); aff’d [1945] HCA 16; (1945) 71 CLR 430, 464 (Latham CJ), 500 (Dixon J); Rejfek v McElroy [1965] HCA 46; (1965) 112 CLR 517, 521; Wentworth v Rogers [No 5] (1986) 6 NSWLR 534, 539 (Kirby P).
[18] Rejfek v McElroy [1965] HCA 46; (1965) 112 CLR 517, 521.
[19] Jonesco v Beard [1930] AC 298, 300 (Lord Buckmaster); Briginshaw [1938] HCA 34; (1938) 60 CLR 336, 362 (Dixon J); Helton v Allen [1940] HCA 20; (1940) 63 CLR 691, 711 (Dixon, Evatt and McTiernan JJ); Hocking v Bell [1944] NSWStRp 31; (1944) 44 SR (NSW) 468, 478 (Davidson J); aff’d [1945] HCA 16; (1945) 71 CLR 430, 464 (Latham CJ), 500 (Dixon J); Wentworth v Rogers [No 5] (1986) 6 NSWLR 534, 538 (Kirby P).
[20] Rejfek v McElroy [1965] HCA 46; (1965) 112 CLR 517, 521.
[21] See, eg, Motchall v Massoud [1926] VicLawRp 43; [1926] VLR 273, 276 (Irvine CJ).
[22] Neat Holdings Pty Ltd v Karajan Holdings Pty Ltd [1992] HCA 66; (1992) 110 ALR 449, 450.
[23] [1994] HCA 48; (1994) 181 CLR 387.
[24] Ibid 399 (Deane, Dawson and Gaudron JJ).
[25] Ibid 399–400 (Deane, Dawson and Gaudron JJ).
[26] Transcript of Proceedings, Rosecrance v Rosecrance (High Court of Australia, McHugh J, 18 June 1999).
[27] Transcript of Proceedings, Witham v Holloway (High Court of Australia, McHugh J, 10 February 1995).
[28] Transcript of Proceedings, Witham v Holloway (High Court of Australia, Gaudron J, 10 February 1995).
[29] Ibid.
[30] [1940] HCA 20; (1940) 63 CLR 691.
[31] Helton v Allen [1940] HCA 20; (1940) 63 CLR 691, 712 (Dixon, Evatt and McTiernan JJ).
[32] Patrick Parkinson, ‘Family Law and Parent-Child Contact: Assessing the Risk of Sexual Abuse’ [1999] MelbULawRw 15; (1999) 23 Melbourne University Law Review 345. Parkinson estimates that the allegation is made in between one quarter and one half of all contested cases: at 346.
[34] Ibid 77 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ).
[35] Ibid 76.
[36] Ibid 77.
[37] Briginshaw [1938] HCA 34; (1938) 60 CLR 336, 362 (Dixon J).
[38] [1945] HCA 16; (1945) 71 CLR 430.
[39] [1965] HCA 46; (1965) 112 CLR 517.
[40] Ibid 521.
[41] Maher v Wall [2000] SASC 176 (Unreported, Duggan J, 23 June 2000) (allegation of forgery of a motor vehicle disposal notice).
[42] Neat Holdings Pty Ltd v Karajan Holdings Pty Ltd [1992] HCA 66; (1992) 110 ALR 449, 450–1 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane and Gaudron JJ) (competing and inconsistent financial figures in relation to a business).
[43] See, eg, Smith v Hehir [2001] EOC 93-165, 75 571 (Member Tahmindjis); Menzies v Waycott [2001] EOC 93-129, 75 247 (Senior Member Lyons).
[44] See ‘Resolution of Disputes’ in CCH, Australian and New Zealand Equal Opportunity Law and Practice, vol 1 (at 1 August 2003) 72 273–459.
[45] Ibid.
[46] Bloomfield v Westco Jeans Pty Ltd [2001] EOC 93-161 ($250); Skinner v Lightning Bolt Pty Ltd [2001] EOC 93-167 ($72 582, not altered on appeal).
[47] Shiels v James [2000] FMCA 2 (Unreported, Federal Magistrate Raphael, 13 September 2000).
[48] For an example from the area of the provision of goods and services, see Evans v Lee [1996] HREOCA 8; [1996] EOC 92-822, 79 055–7 (Commissioner Jones).
[49] See, eg, Workplace Relations Act 1996 (Cth) pt VIA; Industrial Relations Act 1999 (Qld) pt 3.
[50] Bigg v NSW Police Service (1998) 80 IR 434, 456 (Bauer and Schmidt JJ and Commissioner Murphy).
[51] Wang v Crestell Industries Pty Ltd (1997) 73 IR 454, 463–4 (Cahill V-P, Hill J and Commissioner French).
[52] [2000] NSWIRComm 38; (2000) 98 IR 1.
[53] Ibid 7 (Wright P, Hungerford J and Commissioner Cambridge).
[55] Ibid 383 (Thomas J).
[56] Re Major Reviews of Percy, Farrell and R J O [1998] VSC 70; (1998) 102 A Crim R 554.
[57] Ibid 567.
[58] Re Major Review of Percy [1998] VSC 90; (1998) 104 A Crim R 29.
[59] MacDonald v A-G (Cth) (1980) 24 SASR 294.
[60] Ibid 308–9.
[61] Ibid 302.
[62] [1992] HCA 15; (1992) 175 CLR 218 (‘Marion’s Case’). Deane J cited (at 305) with approval the application of Briginshaw in Re Jane [1988] FamCA 57; (1988) 94 FLR 1, 20–1 (Nicholson CJ).
[63] Marion’s Case [1992] HCA 15; (1992) 175 CLR 218, 305.
[64] [1998] FCA 389; (1999) 163 ALR 205.
[65] Ibid 216.
[66] Ibid.
[67] This three-part test of Aboriginality was proposed by Deane J in Commonwealth v Tasmania [1983] HCA 21; (1983) 158 CLR 1, 273–4 (‘Tasmanian Dams Case’).
[68] One respondent failed to appear or file any pertinent information, while the other unsuccessful respondent failed to provide cogent genealogical evidence linking her to any known Aboriginal family. Even though she identified herself as Aboriginal and there was some community recognition of her status, Merkel J held that the petitioners had discharged their onus of proof: Shaw v Wolf [1998] FCA 389; (1999) 163 ALR 205, 233–9.
[69] (1939) 56 WN (NSW) 53. This case was relied upon by the lawyers for the Commissioner for Main Roads in O’Callaghan v Loder [1984] EOC 92-024, discussed below in Part V(A).
[70] Re a Solicitor; Ex parte The Prothonotary (1939) 56 WN (NSW) 53, 54.
[71] [1966] VicRp 40; [1966] VR 292, 296.
[72] [1996] SASC 5650; (1996) 67 SASR 149.
[73] Ibid 153.
[74] For example, in Ebber v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (1995) 129 ALR 455, Drummond J stated that ‘a finding of unlawful conduct could only be made against the respondents if it was proved to the standard referred to in Briginshaw v Briginshaw’: at 468.
[75] Chris Ronalds, Discrimination Law and Practice (1998) 182.
[76] See, eg, Batzialas v Tony Davies Motors Pty Ltd [2002] FMCA 243 (Unreported, Federal Magistrate McInnes, 7 November 2002) (racial discrimination); Smith v Hehir [2001] EOC
93-165 (sexual harassment).
[77] Smith v Hehir [2001] EOC 93-165, 75 571 (Member Tahmindjis). This statement of law was not challenged on appeal to the Supreme Court of Queensland.
[78] [2000] NSWIRComm 38; (2000) 98 IR 1.
[79] Ibid 8.
[80] See, eg, Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth); Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986 (Cth); Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Cth); Discrimination Act 1991 (ACT); Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW); Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld); Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (SA); Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 (Tas); Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic); Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (WA).
[81] Cocks v Queensland [1994] QADT 3; [1994] EOC 92-612.
[82] See, eg, Djokic v Sinclair [1994] HREOCA 16; [1994] EOC 92-643, 77 419 (Wilson P); Ebber v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (1995) 129 ALR 455, 467–8 (Drummond J); Borg v Commissioner, Department of Corrective Services [2002] EOC 93-198, 76 342 (Goode P, Members Nemeth de Bikal and Farmer).
[83] See, eg, Scott v Telstra [1995] EOC 92-717, 78 398 (Wilson P); Tocigl v Aitco Pty Ltd [1996] EOC 92-775, 78 762 (Wilson P); Rhodes v Calendula Pty Ltd [2001] QADT 19; [2002] EOC 93-181, 76 162 (Member Wyvill).
[84] However, there is no need to prove intent or motive in complaints of discrimination. With respect to sexual harassment there is an objective test, except in Queensland, which offers the choice of an objective test or proof of an intention to harass: Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld) s 119(e).
[86] Ibid 75 514.
[87] Ibid 75 511.
[88] The first Australian anti-discrimination legislation, the Prohibition of Discrimination Act 1966 (SA), made discrimination a criminal offence. No successful prosecutions were brought under this Act. It was repealed and replaced by the Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (SA) which provides for civil remedies.
[90] O’Callaghan v Loder [1984] EOC 92-024, 75 512.
[91] Ibid.
[92] Ibid 75 517.
[94] Ibid 75 438.
[95] Ibid 75 439 (emphasis added).
[96] Ibid 75 440.
[97] Ibid 75 444.
[98] [1984] EOC 92-024, 75 512.
[99] The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) was the first statute to provide for civil remedies, followed by the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (SA) and the Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW).
[100] [1988] VicRp 42; [1988] VR 319.
[101] Ibid 327, corrected by the High Court in Waters v Public Transport Corporation [1991] HCA 49; (1991) 173 CLR 349.
[102] See, eg, Macedonian Teachers’ Association of Victoria Inc v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission [1998] FCA 1650; (1998) 91 FCR 8, 44 (Weinberg J); Sharma v Legal Aid (Qld) [2002] FCAFC 196 (Unreported, Heerey, Mansfield and Hely JJ, 21 June 2002) [40] (Heerey, Mansfield and Hely JJ); Victoria v McKenna [1999] VSC 310 (Unreported, Smith J, 27 August 1999)
[39]–[44].
[103] Department of Health v Arumugam [1988] VicRp 42; [1988] VR 319, 330–1.
[105] Ibid 77 165.
[107] Ibid 79 010. The serious consequences of allegations which might impugn the integrity of city councillors were also mentioned in Wagga Wagga Aboriginal Action Group v Eldridge [1995] EOC 92-701, 78 265 (Judicial Member Bartley, Members Farmer and Luger); Moerjono v Waverley Council [1995] EOC 92-671, 78 127 (Judicial Member Goode, Members Farmer and Toltz); Evershed v City of Geraldton [1995] EOC 92-745, 78 564 (Hasluck P, Member Kean and Deputy Member Jacobs) (‘Evershed’). In Evershed, a further consequence was that the elected councillors would be setting a bad example to the community if it was found that they had infringed the legislation: at 78 564.
[108] D L (Representing the Members of People Living with AIDS (WA) Inc) v Perth City Council [1992] EOC 92-422, 79 010 (Roberts-Smith P).
[109] City of Perth v D L [1994] EOC 92-634; City of Perth v D L (Representing the Members of People Living with AIDS (WA) Inc) [1996] EOC 92-796.
[110] I W v City of Perth [1997] HCA 30; (1997) 191 CLR 1.
[111] [1998] FCA 1650; [1999] EOC 93-009.
[112] Australian Macedonian Human Rights Committee (Inc) v Victoria (Unreported, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Wilson P, 8 January 1998) 7, cited in Macedonian Teachers’ Association of Victoria Inc v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission [1998] FCA 1650; (1998) 91 FCR 8, 23 (Weinberg J).
[113] Macedonian Teachers’ Association of Victoria Inc v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission [1998] FCA 1650; (1998) 91 FCR 8, 44.
[114] Ibid.
[115] Victoria v Macedonian Teachers’ Association of Victoria Inc [1999] FCA 1287; (1999) 91 FCR 47, 51 (O’Connor, Sundberg and North JJ).
[116] [2002] FCAFC 196 (Unreported, Heerey, Mansfield and Hely JJ, 21 June 2002).
[117] [1992] EOC 92-415 (‘Traeger Park Case’).
[118] Opened for signature 21 December 1965, 660 UNTS 195 (entered into force 4 January 1969).
[119] [1996] EOC 92-775, 78 760–6.
[120] Traeger Park Case [1992] EOC 92-415, 78 969.
[121] Ibid 78 967–8 (emphasis added).
[122] [2001] FMCA 98 (Unreported, Federal Magistrate Raphael, 11 October 2001).
[123] See, eg, Department of Health v Arumugam [1988] VicRp 42; [1988] VR 319, 330–1 (Fullagar J); Djokic v Sinclair [1994] HREOCA 16; [1994] EOC 92-643, 77 419 (Wilson P); Moerjono v Waverley Council [1995] EOC 92-671, 78 127; Sharma v Legal Aid (Qld) [2002] FCAFC 196 (Unreported, Heerey, Mansfield and Hely JJ, 21 June 2002) [40]–[41].
[124] [2001] FCA 1699; (2001) 112 IR 124.
[125] Sharma v Legal Aid (Qld) [2002] FCAFC 196 (Unreported, Heerey, Mansfield and Hely JJ, 21 June 2002).
[126] Ibid [40] (citations omitted).
[127] [2002] NSWADT 133 (Unreported, Judicial Member Rice, Members Alt and McDonald, 6 August 2002).
[128] Ibid [52].
[129] Ibid [55]–[57].
[130] See, eg, Briginshaw [1938] HCA 34; (1938) 60 CLR 336; Neat Holdings Pty Ltd v Karajan Holdings Pty Ltd [1992] HCA 66; (1992) 110 ALR 449; G v H [1994] HCA 48; (1994) 181 CLR 387.
[131] Margaret Thornton, ‘Revisiting Race’ in Race Discrimination Commissioner, The Racial Discrimination Act: A Review (1995) 81, 95.
[132] Ibid.
[133] Australian Public Service Association v Australian Trade Commission [1988] EOC 92-228, 77 165 (indirect discrimination); Erbs v Overseas Corporation Pty Ltd [1986] EOC 92-181, 76 721 (direct discrimination); Bennett v Everitt [1988] EOC 92-244, 77 270 (sexual harassment).
[134] Erbs v Overseas Corporation Pty Ltd [1986] EOC 92-181, 76 721.
[135] Indeed, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission’s hearing role was held to be unconstitutional in Brandy v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission [1995] HCA 10; (1995) 183 CLR 245.
[136] Administrative Decisions Tribunal Act 1997 (NSW) s 73(1); Anti-Discrimination Act 1992 (NT) s 90(1)(a); Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld) s 208(1); Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (SA) s 23(2); Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 (Tas) s 87(4); Civil and Administrative Tribunal Act 1998 (Vic) s 98(1)(b); Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (WA) s 120(a). There appears to be no corresponding provision in the Discrimination Act 1991 (ACT). Complaints in the federal jurisdiction are now heard by the federal courts where the rules of evidence do apply.
[137] See, eg, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986 (Cth) s 46P; Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW) s 88(1)(a); Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld) s 136; Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic) s 105.
[138] See, eg, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986 (Cth) s 46PK(5); Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW) s 93; Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld) s 163; Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (SA) s 95(6).
[139] [1998] FCA 389; (1999) 163 ALR 205, 216.
[140] R v War Pensions Entitlement Appeal Tribunal; Ex parte Bott (1933) 50 CLR 228, 256 (Evatt J).
[141] The provisions in all Australian state anti-discrimination legislation and in the Northern Territory allow tribunals to determine their own procedure; for example, by adopting rules of evidence, practices and procedures: Administrative Decisions Tribunal Act 1997 (NSW) s 73(1); Anti-Discrimination Act 1992 (NT) s 90(1)(a); Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld) s 208(1); Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (SA) s 23(2); Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 (Tas) s 87(4); Civil and Administrative Tribunal Act 1998 (Vic) s 98(1)(b); Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (WA) s 120(a).
[142] The continued use of the Briginshaw test has been noted by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission on two occasions: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Change and Continuity: Review of the Federal Unlawful Discrimination Jurisdiction September 2000–September 2002 (2002) 16–19; Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Change and Continuity: Review of the Federal Unlawful Discrimination Jurisdiction Supplement September 2002–March 2003 (2003) 1.
[144] Ibid 78 164 (Wolters D-P, Members Lanteri and McCallum).
[145] Ibid.
[146] Victoria v McKenna [1999] VSC 310 (Unreported, Smith J, 27 August 1999).
[147] For example, the respondent medical practitioners accused of sexual harassment in Hall v Sheiban (1988) HREOCA 5; [1988] EOC 92-227 and Elliott v Nanda [2001] FCA 418; (2001) 111 FCR 240. Briginshaw was applied in the latter case: at 274 (Moore J).
[148] See, eg, Williams v South Australia [1990] EOC 92-283 where racial discrimination was alleged against the South Australian Equal Opportunity Commission; Bell v Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission [1994] EOC 92-565 which concerned racist remarks against a white employee ‘in the context of an organisation whose entire functioning is the promotion of Australia’s indigenous peoples’: at 77 094 (Commissioner Castan).
[149] See, eg, Kalich v Es [1999] EOC 92-961, 79 073 (Member Laurie); Borg v Commissioner, Department of Corrective Services [2002] EOC 93-198, 76 342; Rhodes v Calendula Pty Ltd [2001] QADT 19; [2002] EOC 93-181, 76 162 (Member Wyvill).
[150] There are some exceptions: see, eg, Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld) ss 204–6.
[151] For example, there are no particular forms and complainants are encouraged to draft their own complaints and even conduct their own cases at the conciliation stage.
[152] Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW) ss 90(1), 111(1); Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic) ss 108(1), 109(1). See also Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986 (Cth) s 46PH(1)(c); Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld) s 139.
[153] See, eg, Burnie Port Authority v General Jones Pty Ltd [1994] HCA 13; (1994) 179 CLR 520.
[154] Holloway v McFeeters [1956] HCA 25; (1956) 94 CLR 470, 476–7 (Dixon CJ), 481 (Williams, Webb and Taylor JJ), 488 (Kitto J).
[155] Dutt v Central Coast Area Health Service [2002] NSWADT 133 (Unreported, Judicial Member Rice, Members Alt and McDonald, 6 August 2002) [54].