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Carter, Anne --- "The Definition and Discovery of Facts in Native Title: The Historian's Contribution" [2008] FedLawRw 13; (2008) 36(3) Federal Law Review 299

[*] BA (Hons), LLB (Hons), University of Adelaide. I am particularly grateful to Andrew Ligertwood for his enthusiasm and support throughout the various stages of the preparation of this article. I would also like to thank Dr Steven Churches, Dr Gary Edmond, Dr Christopher Jones, Meaghan McEvoy, Alexander Reilly, Andrew Tokley and Jonathan Wells QC for their assistance and comments at various stages. I am also grateful to the anonymous referees for their helpful suggestions.

[1] See, eg, Graeme Davison, 'History on the Witness Stand: Interrogating the Past' in Iain McCalman and Ann McGrath (eds), Proof and Truth: The Humanist as Expert (2003) 53, 53.

[2] Jonathan D Martin, 'Historians at the Gate: Accommodating Expert Historical Testimony in Federal Courts' (2003) 78 New York University Law Review 1518, 1523.

[3] Helen Hornbeck Tanner, 'History vs. The Law: Processing Indians in the American Legal System' (1999) 76 University of Detroit Mercy Law Review 693, 694, 698; Martin, above n 2, 1523–5; James C Mohr, 'Historically Based Legal Briefs: Observations of a Participant in the Webster Process' (1990) 12(3) Public Historian 19, 19–22.

[4] F W Maitland, 'Why the History of English Law is Not Written' in H A L Fisher (ed), The Collected Papers of Frederic William Maitland (1911) vol 1, 480, 491. See also John Phillip Reid, 'Law and History' (1993) 27 Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 193, 195–6; Enid Campbell, 'Lawyers' Uses of History' [1969] UQLawJl 1; (1968) 6(1) University of Queensland Law Journal 1.

[5] (1996) 187 CLR 1 ('Wik'), 182–3 (Gummow J).

[6] Bradley Selway, 'The Use of History and Other Facts in the Reasoning of the High Court of Australia' [2001] UTasLawRw 5; (2001) 20 University of Tasmania Law Review 129.

[7] Courts can only ever seek an 'approximation' of the past, and can never reconstruct the past in its entirety. See discussion corresponding to footnote 11, below.

[8] See, eg, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, Native Title Report 2007 (2008).

[9] Carl L Becker, 'What are historical facts?' in P L Snyder (ed), Detachment and the Writing of History: Essays and Letters of Carl L Becker (1958) 41, 52.

[10] Andrew Ligertwood, Australian Evidence (4th ed, 2004) 5. Evidence scholars sometimes express this approximation in terms of mathematical probabilities: see, eg, David Hamer, 'The Civil Standard of Proof Uncertainty: Probability, Belief and Justice' [1994] SydLawRw 37; (1994) 16 Sydney Law Review 506; D H Hodgson, 'The Scales of Justice: Probability and Proof in Legal Fact-finding' (1995) 69 Australian Law Journal 731.

[11] In the context of ascertaining the Aboriginal death toll during colonisation see Lawrence McNamara, 'History, Memory and Judgment: Holocaust Denial, The History Wars and Law's Problems with the Past' [2004] SydLawRw 16; (2004) 26 Sydney Law Review 353, 392.

[12] Michael Kirby, 'Alex Castles, Australian Legal History and the Courts' (2005) 9 Australian Journal of Legal History 1, 12–13; Ward v Western Australia [1998] FCA 1478; (1998) 159 ALR 483, 504 (Lee J).

[13] Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1 ('Mabo'); Wik (1996) 187 CLR 1. See Tom Gara, 'History, Anthropology and Native Title' in Mandy Paul and Geoffrey Gray (eds), Through a Smoky Mirror: History and Native Title (2002) 65, 66.

[14] R S French, 'Mabo – Native Title in Australia' (Paper presented at the Landmark Cases Roundtable Conference, Constitutional Court of South Africa, Johannesburg, 10–11 December 2004) [2]–[30]; Bain Attwood, 'The Law of the Land or the Law of the Land?: History, Law and Narrative in a Settler Society' (2004) 2 History Compass 1; Gara, above n 13, 69–70; Penelope Matthew, Rosemary Hunter and Hilary Charlesworth, 'Law and History in Black and White' in Rosemary Hunter, Richard Ingleby and Richard Johnstone (eds), Thinking About Law: Perspectives on the History, Philosophy and Sociology of Law (1995) 3, 3–27; Bain Attwood, 'Introduction – The Past as Future: Aborigines, Australia and the (dis)course of History' in Bain Attwood (ed), In the Age of Mabo: History, Aborigines and Australia, (1996) vii, xxxi–xxxiii; Selway, above n 6, 151; John Williams, 'Constitutional Intention: The Limits of Originalism' in Ngaire Naffine, Rosemary Owens and John Williams (eds), Intention in Law and Philosophy (2001) 321, 334–5.

[15] (1889) 14 App Cas 286, 291 (Lord Watson) (Privy Council).

[16] Mabo (1992) 175 CLR 1, 58, 69 (Brennan J); 104–9 (Deane and Gaudron JJ).

[17] David Ritter and Frances N A Flanagan, 'Stunted Growth: the Historiography of Native Title Litigation in the Decade Since Mabo' (2003) 10 Public History Review 21, 21–3.

[18] Gara, above n 13, 67.

[19] David Ritter, 'Whither the Historians? The Case for Historians in the Native Title Process' [1999] IndigLawB 1; (1999) 4(17) Indigenous Law Bulletin 4, 4; Alexander Reilly, 'The Ghost of Truganini: Use of Historical Evidence as Proof of Native Title' (2000) 28 Federal Law Review 453, 470.

[20] There are some recent collections: Mandy Paul and Geoffrey Gray (eds), Through a Smoky Mirror: History and Native Title (2002); Christine Choo and Shawn Hollbach (eds), History and Native Title: Studies in Western Australian History (2003) vol 23; Iain McCalman and Ann McGrath (eds), Proof and Truth: The Humanist as Expert (2003); Sandy Toussaint (ed), Crossing Boundaries: Cultural, Legal, Historical and Practice Issues in Native Title (2004). See also Michael Stuckey, 'Not by Discovery but by Conquest: The Use of History and the Meaning of "Justice" in Australian Native Title Cases' (2005) 34 Common Law World Review 19; Ritter and Flanagan, above n 17; Alex Reilly and Ann Genovese, 'Claiming the Past: Historical Understanding in Australian Native Title Jurisprudence' (2004) 3 Indigenous Law Journal 19.

[21] Cathie Clement, 'Historians and Native Title: A Personal Perspective' (2000) 91 Australian Historical Association Bulletin 86; Fiona Skyring, 'History Wars: Debates about History in the Native Title Process' in Choo and Hollbach (eds), above n 20, 71; Christine Choo, 'Working as a Historian on the Miriuwung Gajerrong Native Title Claim' in Sandy Toussaint (ed), Crossing Boundaries: Cultural, Legal, Historical and Practice Issues in Native Title (2004) 195; Michael Barker, 'Working as a Barrister on the Miriuwung Gajerrong Native Title Claim' in Sandy Toussaint (ed), Crossing Boundaries: Cultural, Legal, Historical and Practice Issues in Native Title (2004) 159.

[22] Ann Curthoys, Ann Genovese and Alex Reilly, Rights and Redemption: History, Law and Indigenous People (2008).

[23] Yorta Yorta [2001] FCA 45; (2001) 110 FCR 244, 264 [63] (Black CJ). Cf defamation actions, where the 'court's determination will not present a statement of what happened in the past. Rather, it is only a finding of plausibility or implausibility': McNamara, above n 11, 373.

[24] Robert Nicholson, 'The Use of History in Proving Native Title: A Judge's Perspective' (2003) 12 Early Days Journal: Proceedings of the Royal Western Australian Historical Society 315, 316.

[25] Hal Wootten, 'Conflicting Imperatives: Pursuing Truth in the Courts' in McCalman and McGrath (eds), above n 20, 15, 16–21.

[26] G M Dickinson and R D Gidney, 'History and Advocacy: Some Reflections on the Historian's Role in Litigation' (1987) 68 Canadian Historical Review 576, 580.

[27] See Reilly and Genovese, above n 20, 37.

[28] Stuckey, above n 20, 20.

[29] Davison, above n 1, 65. See also Ann Genovese, 'The Use of History in Native Title: Historical Perspectives' (2003) 12 Early Days Journal: Proceedings of the Royal Western Australian Historical Society 326, 329–31.

[30] For some interesting comparative analysis, see Simon Young, The Trouble with Tradition: Native Title and Cultural Change (2008).

[31] Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v State of Victoria [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998); Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v State of Victoria [2001] FCA 45; (2001) 110 FCR 244 (Full Federal Court); Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v State of Victoria [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422. These decisions will be footnoted hereafter as 'Yorta Yorta', with the relevant citation.

[32] See, eg, Natasha Case, 'Tide of History or Tsunami? The Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v The State of Victoria & Ors (1998)' [1999] IndigLawB 9; (1999) 4(17) Indigenous Law Bulletin 20; Valerie Kerruish and Colin Perrin, 'Awash in Colonialism: A Critical Analysis of the Federal Court Decision in the Matter of the Members of Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v The State of Victoria & Ors' [1999] AltLawJl 1; (1999) 24 Alternative Law Journal 3; Wayne Atkinson, '"Not One Iota" of Land Justice: Reflections on the Yorta Yorta Native Title Claim 1994–2001' [2001] IndigLawB 12; (2001) 5(6) Indigenous Law Bulletin 19; James Cockayne, 'Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria: Indigenous and Colonial Traditions in Native Title' [2001] MelbULawRw 25; (2001) 25 Melbourne University Law Review 786; Alexander Reilly, 'History Always Repeats: Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v State of Victoria' [2001] IndigLawB 14; (2001) 5(6) Indigenous Law Bulletin 25; Doug Young and Tony Denholder, 'Proof of Native Title – Yorta Yorta' [2001] AUMPLawJl 24; (2001) 20 Australian Mining and Petroleum Law Journal 82; Simon Young, 'The Trouble with "Tradition": Native Title and the Yorta Yorta Decision' [2001] UWALawRw 2; (2001) 30 University of Western Australia Law Review 28; Richard Bartlett, 'An Obsession with Traditional Laws and Customs Creates Difficulty Establishing Native Title Claims in the South: Yorta Yorta' [2003] UWALawRw 3; (2003) 31 University of Western Australia Law Review 35; Ben Golder, 'Law, History, Colonialism: An Orientalist Reading of Australian Native Title Law' [2004] DeakinLawRw 2; (2004) 9 Deakin Law Review 41; Peter Seidel, 'Native Title: The Struggle for Justice for the Yorta Yorta Nation' (2004) 29 Alternative Law Journal 70.

[33] Wootten, above n 25, 43.

[34] Although s 223 was amended in 1998, the changes did not affect s 223(1): See Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 433 [10] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ); Melissa Perry and Stephen Lloyd, Australian Native Title Law (2003) 19.

[35] Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 440 [32], 451 [70], 453 [75] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ); Western Australia v Ward (2002) 213 CLR 1, 65–6 [16] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ). For some discussion of the role of the common law in the interpretation of the NTA, see Maureen Tehan, 'A Hope Disillusioned, An Opportunity Lost? Reflections on Common Law Native Title and Ten Years of the Native Title Act' [2003] MelbULawRw 19; (2003) 27 Melbourne University Law Review 523; Sean Brennan, 'Native Title in the High Court of Australia a Decade after Mabo' (2003) 14 Public Law Review 209, 209–15.

[36] Gumana v Northern Territory of Australia [2005] FCA 50; (2005) 141 FCR 457, 494 [128], 493 [120] (cf at common law) (Selway J). See also Gumana v Northern Territory of Australia (2007) 158 FCR 359, 383[127] (French, Finn and Sundberg JJ).

[37] Mabo (1992) 175 CLR 1, 58 (Brennan J), 110 (Deane and Gaudron JJ); Fejo v Northern Territory [1998] HCA 58; (1998) 195 CLR 96, 128 [46] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Hayne and Callinan JJ); Yanner v Eaton (1999) 201 CLR 351, 382–3 [72] (Gummow J); Wik (1996) 187 CLR 1, 169 (Gummow J).

[38] Western Australia v Ward (2002) 213 CLR 1, 66 [18] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ); Gumana v Northern Territory of Australia [2005] FCA 50; (2005) 141 FCR 457, 497–9 [144]–[148] (Selway J). See also Perry and Lloyd, above n 34, 764; Lisa Wright, 'Themes Emerging from the High Court's Recent Native Title Decisions' (2003) 1 National Native Title Tribunal Occasional Papers Series, 18–19 <http://www.nntt.gov.au/Publications-And-Research/Tribunal-Research/Pages/Occasional-Paper-Series.aspx> at 19 April 2008.

[39] Gumana v Northern Territory of Australia [2005] FCA 50; (2005) 141 FCR 457, 498 [146]. The nature of these inquiries was not disputed on appeal, although some of his Honour's specific findings in relation to s 223(1)(b) were challenged: see Gumana v Northern Territory of Australia (2007) 158 FCR 359, 385-93 [135]–[163].

[40] Gumana v Northern Territory of Australia [2005] FCA 50; (2005) 141 FCR 457, 498 [145]. For the High Court's analysis of paragraph (c), see Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 453–4 [76]–[77] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ). Cf McHugh J's vehement criticisms at 467–8 [126]–[136].

[41] Commonwealth v Yarmirr (2001) 208 CLR 1, 39 [15] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ); Daniel v Western Australia [2003] FCA 666 (Unreported, Nicholson J, 3 July 2003) [136]; Perry and Lloyd, above n 34, 764.

[42] Western Australia v Ward (2002) 213 CLR 1, 91 [82], 95 [95] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ); Daniel v Western Australia [2003] FCA 666 (Unreported, Nicholson J, 3 July 2003) [136]. Some have argued that this particularisation of rights and interests compounds the problems of proof: Bartlett, above n 32, 44–6; Lisa Strelein, 'Conceptualising Native Title' [2001] SydLawRw 4; (2001) 23 Sydney Law Review 95, 103–4; Sky Mykyta, 'Losing Sight of the Big Picture: The Narrowing of Native Title in Australia' (2005) 36 Ottawa Law Review 93, 112–14.

[43] Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422. Note that when I refer to the 'majority' of the High Court I am referring to the joint judgment of Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ. McHugh and Callinan JJ agreed with the result but delivered separate judgments.

[44] Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 441–4 [38]–[44] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

[45] Ibid 444 [44].

[46] Ibid 444 [46].

[47] Ibid 444 [47].

[48] Ibid.

[49] Ibid 447 [56].

[50] Reilly and Genovese, above n 20, 32.

[51] Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 456–7 [87]–[89] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

[52] Ibid 455 [83], 457 [90].

[53] As to the nature of this connection, see Western Australia v Ward (2002) 213 CLR 1, 84–6 [57]–[64] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

[54] Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 456 [86] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

[55] Michael Black, 'Developments in Practice and Procedure in Native Title Cases' (2002) 13 Public Law Review 16.

[56] Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) s 82.

[57] Yorta Yorta [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998) [17]. As to the burden of proof, see Daniel v Western Australia [2003] FCA 666 (Unreported, Nicholson J, 3 July 2003) [146]–[148]; Western Australia v Ward [2000] FCA 191; (2000) 99 FCR 316, 351–2 [116]–[120] (Beaumont and von Doussa JJ); Yorta Yorta [2001] FCA 45; (2001) 110 FCR 244, 284–6 [151]–[159] (Branson and Katz JJ).

[58] Briginshaw v Briginshaw [1938] HCA 34; (1938) 60 CLR 336, 343–4 (Latham CJ), 361–3 (Dixon J); Bater v Bater [1950] 2 All ER 458, 459 (Denning LJ).

[59] Neat Holdings Pty Ltd v Karajan Holdings Pty Ltd [1992] HCA 66; (1992) 67 ALJR 170, 171 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane and Gaudron JJ). See also Cubillo v Commonwealth (No 2) [2000] FCA 1084; (2000) 103 FCR 1, 115–18 [346]–[352] (O'Loughlin J); G v H [1994] HCA 48; (1994) 181 CLR 387, 399 (Deane, Dawson and Gaudron JJ); Cassell v The Queen (2000) 201 CLR 189, 193 [18] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ); Shaw v Wolf [1998] FCA 389; (1998) 83 FCR 113, 123–5 (Merkel J).

[60] Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 454 [80] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

[61] De Rose v State of South Australia [2002] FCA 1342 (Unreported, O'Loughlin J, 1 November 2002) [570]. This decision and others sharing the same case history will be hereafter referred to as 'De Rose' with the relevant citation.

[62] (1994) 34 NSWLR 572.

[63] Ibid 586 (Kirby P).

[64] Ibid 587. Note that Kirby P referred to John Henry Wigmore, Wigmore on Evidence (3rd ed, 1961) vol 2, § 437, and also earlier authorities such as Cloverdell Lumber Co Pty Ltd v Abbott [1924] HCA 4; (1924) 34 CLR 122, 137–8 (Isaacs J).

[65] Mason v Tritton (1994) 34 NSWLR 572, 588 (Kirby P).

[66] Gumana v Northern Territory of Australia [2005] FCA 50; (2005) 141 FCR 457, 510 [196] (Selway J). See also De Rose [2002] FCA 1342 (Unreported, O'Loughlin J, 1 November 2002) [570].

[67] Gumana v Northern Territory of Australia [2005] FCA 50; (2005) 141 FCR 457, 510 [194].

[68] Ibid 510 [197], 511 [201]. This inferential process adopted by Selway J was not challenged on appeal. See also Commonwealth v Yarmirr [1999] FCA 1668; (2000) 101 FCR 171, 194 [66] (Beaumont and von Doussa JJ); De Rose [2003] FCAFC 286; (2003) 133 FCR 325, 402 [259] (Wilcox, Sackville and Merkel JJ).

[69] [2007] FCA 31 [341]–[350].

[70] Ibid.

[71] Ligertwood, above n 10, 14.

[72] George F James, 'Relevancy, Probability and the Law' (1941) 29 California Law Review 689, 696.

[73] W A N Wells, Natural Logic, Judicial Proof and Objective Facts (1994) 3, 6–12, 83–4.

[74] Richard Evans, 'History, Memory and the Law: The Historian as Expert Witness' (2002) 41 History and Theory 326, 333–5; Leora Bilsky, 'Judging and Understanding' (2001) 19 Law and History Review 183.

[75] [2000] FCA 1084; (2000) 103 FCR 1.

[76] Ibid 243–62 [782]–[838], 387 [1246]; Arthur Glass, 'Making the Facts Speak' in McCalman and McGrath (eds), above n 20, 123, 127; Mark Dreyfus, 'Historians in Court' in McCalman and McGrath (eds), above n 20, 71, 71–2; Ann Curthoys and Ann Genovese, 'Evidence and Narrative: History and Law' in McCalman and McGrath (eds), above n 20, 83, 88.

[77] Glass, above n 76, 130; Cockayne, above n 32, 794, 796–8.

[78] Yorta Yorta [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998) [121], [129]. See also Yorta Yorta [2001] FCA 45; (2001) 110 FCR 244, 260 [51] (Black CJ).

[79] Yorta Yorta [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998) [121], [129].

[80] Yorta Yorta [2001] FCA 45; (2001) 110 FCR 244, 269 [84] (Black CJ). See also 260 [51].

[81] Ibid 263 [59]. See also 260 [50], 263 [59]–[61].

[82] I am using the term 'inference' in the Wigmorean sense, which assumes it is possible to discern some rational relationship between the evidence and the factual propositions drawn from this evidence. See Ligertwood, above n 10, 7–12.

[83] John Henry Wigmore, The Science of Judicial Proof (3rd ed, 1937); Terence Anderson and William Twining, Analysis of Evidence: How to do Things with Facts (1991) 136–53; Andrew Palmer, Proof and the Preparation of Trials (2003) 61–83, 169–73; Ligertwood, above n 10, 7–12.

[84] Ligertwood, above n 10, 13–14.

[85] James, above n 72, 695.

[86] Christine Choo and Margaret O'Connell, 'Historical Narrative and Proof of Native Title' in Paul and Gray (eds), above n 20, 11, 17–20; Curthoys and Genovese, above n 76, 87–8.

[87] Quick v Stoland [1998] FCA 1200; (1998) 87 FCR 371, 373–4 (Branson J); Neowarra v Western Australia (No 1) [2003] FCA 1399; (2003) 134 FCR 208, 217–19 [22]–[27] (Sundberg J); Jango v Northern Territory of Australia (No 2) [2004] FCA 1004 (Unreported, Sackville J, 3 August 2004) [11], [33]–[34], [54].

[88] Nicholson, above n 24, 322.

[89] See, eg, Clark v Ryan [1960] HCA 42; (1960) 103 CLR 486, 491 (Dixon CJ); Weal v Bottom (1966) 40 ALJR 436, 438–9 (Barwick CJ), 442 (Taylor J); Murphy v R [1989] HCA 28; (1989) 167 CLR 94, 111 (Mason CJ and Toohey J), 130–1 (Dawson J); R v Bonython (1984) 38 SASR 45, 46–7 (King CJ); Osland v The Queen [1998] HCA 75; (1998) 197 CLR 316, 336 [53] (Gaudron and Gummow JJ).

[90] Velevski v The Queen [2002] HCA 4; (2002) 76 ALJR 402, 416 [82] (Gaudron J), 426–7 [153]–[158] (Gummow and Callinan JJ); HG v The Queen [1999] HCA 2; (1999) 197 CLR 414, 427 [40] (Gleeson CJ), 432 [58] (Gaudron J).

[91] (1998) 43 NSWLR 364, 371. Young J's decision was followed by Hely J in Jones v Scully [2002] FCA 1080; (2002) 120 FCR 243.

[92] Bellevue Crescent v Marland Holdings (1998) 43 NSWLR 364, 371.

[93] Ibid.

[94] Ibid. Young J was considering admissibility under s 79 of the Evidence Act 1995 (NSW), but this is identical to the Evidence Act 1995 (Cth).

[95] See, eg, (at common law) Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd ('The Gove Case') (1971) 17 FLR 141, 161–2 (Blackburn J); Reid v Kerr (1974) 9 SASR 367, 370 (Wells J); Borowski v Quayle [1966] VicRp 54; [1966] VR 382, 385–9. Cf later authorities under the Uniform Evidence Acts (and changes brought about by s 60): R v Welsh (1996) 90 A Crim R 364, 366–9 (Hunt CJ); Quick v Stoland [1998] FCA 1200; (1998) 87 FCR 371, 377–8 (Branson J), 382 (Finkelstein J); Daniel v Western Australia [2000] FCA 858; (2000) 178 ALR 542, 547 [19]–[21] (Nicholson J); Lardil, Kaiadilt, Yangkaal, Gangalidda Peoples v Queesland [2000] FCA 1548 (Unreported, Cooper J, 1 November 2000) [1]–[16]; Harrington-Smith on behalf of the Wongatha People v Western Australia (No 7) [2003] FCA 893; (2003) 130 FCR 424, 431–2 [35]–[39] (Lindgren J).

[96] Bellevue Crescent v Marland Holdings (1998) 43 NSWLR 364, 371. While Young J's judgment was upheld on appeal, note that the Court of Appeal did take a different view of the admissibility of expert historical evidence under s 79: Tomark Pty Ltd v Bellevue Crescent Pty Ltd [1999] NSWCA 347, [1]–[2], [20]–[43].

[97] [2000] FCA 394; (2000) 97 FCR 453, 514 [250], 523 [298]. As to the disputed historical interpretation in Wik, see Jonathan Fulcher, 'Sui Generis History: The Use of History in Wik' in G Hiley (ed), The Wik Case: Issues and Implications (1997) 51; Jonathan Fulcher, 'The Wik Judgment, Pastoral Leases and Colonial Office Policy and Intention in NSW in the 1840s' (1998) 4 Australian Journal of Legal History 33; Gim Del Villar, 'Pastoral Leases and Native Title: A Critique of Ward and Wik' [2004] BondLawRw 2; (2004) 16 Bond Law Review 29, 44–51; Selway, above n 6, 151–2.

[98] See, eg, De Rose [2002] FCA 1342 (Unreported, O'Loughlin J, 1 November 2002) [317]–[321]; Daniel v Western Australia [2003] FCA 666 (Unreported, Nicholson J, 3 July 2003) [149]–[201]; Neowarra v State of Western Australia [2003] FCA 1402 (Unreported, Sundberg J, 8 December 2003) [50]–[61].

[99] [2003] FCA 893; (2003) 130 FCR 424, 429 [26].

[100] Ibid 432–3 [40].

[101] Ibid.

[102] Ibid 433 [41].

[103] Ibid 433 [42]. See also Lindgren J's comments on this in Harrington-Smith on behalf of the Wongatha People v State of Western Australia (No 9) [2007] FCA 31; [2007] 238 ALR 1, 116 [433].

[104] Cf Jango v Northern Territory (No 4) [2004] FCA 1539; (2004) 214 ALR 608, 612–13 [25]–[31], where Sackville J held (at 613 [29]) that the task of 'determining the primary facts' (eg, 'dates of birth, family links or the observances of particular practices') from historical documentation was not a task that fell within the specialised knowledge of an anthropologist. While noting that 'professional experience' would be helpful to locate the documents, '[o]nce the source materials are admitted into evidence, it is for the Court to determine whether they establish the primary facts relied on by the applicants to establish their claims.' However, Sackville J (analogising accounting evidence: Potts v Miller [1940] HCA 43; (1940) 64 CLR 282) noted that in some instances anthropologists may be able to offer 'analysis' or to 'summarise the effect of complex or voluminous primary evidence' (at 613 [27]).

[105] Yorta Yorta [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998) [129].

[106] This has been attributed to appellate caution: Harriet Ketley and Clare Ozich, in Choo and Hollbach (eds), above n 20, 83, 90; Bartlett, above n 32, 38.

[107] Yorta Yorta [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998) [106]. See also [21]–[22].

[108] Ibid [33]–[34], [106], [53]–[54], [60]–[61], [63], [66]–[67], [73], [101], [106]–[108].

[109] Ibid [106].

[110] Ibid [25].

[111] Ibid [52]–[88].

[112] Ibid [106].

[113] Ibid [121].

[114] Ibid [118].

[115] Ibid [119]; Kerruish and Perrin, above n 32, 5.

[116] Yorta Yorta [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998) [119].

[117] Ibid [120]–[121].

[118] Ibid [121].

[119] Ibid [122]–[128].

[120] Ibid [23].

[121] Ibid [55], [58], [62].

[122] Ibid [54].

[123] See, eg, Samuel Furphy, 'Edward Micklethwaite Curr's "Recollections of Squatting": Biography, History and Native Title' in Penelope Edmonds and Samuel Furphy (eds), Rethinking Colonial Histories: New and Alternate Approaches (2006) 33.

[124] Bain Attwood, 'Mabo, Australia and the End of History' in Bain Attwood (ed), In the Age of Mabo: History, Aborigines and Australia (1996) 100, 103; Ann McGrath, 'Contested Ground: what is "Aboriginal History"?', in Ann McGrath (ed), Contested Ground: Australian Aborigines Under the British Crown (1995) 359, 359–97.

[125] Gara, above n 13, 69.

[126] Yorta Yorta [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998) [53].

[127] Ibid [60].

[128] Ibid [54].

[129] Ibid [33].

[130] Roderic Pitty, 'A Poverty of Evidence: Abusing Law and History in Yorta Yorta v Victoria (1998)' (1999) 5 Australian Journal of Legal History 41, 43–52.

[131] Yorta Yorta [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998) [117].

[132] Melissa Castan and Sue Kee, 'The Jurisprudence of Denial' (2003) 28 Alternative Law Journal 83, 86.

[133] Bruce Buchan, 'Withstanding the Tide of History: The Yorta Yorta Case and Indigenous Sovereignty' (2002) 1(2) Borderlands E-Journal [28]

<http://www.borderlands.net.au/vol1no2_2002/buchan_yorta.html> at 19 April 2008.

[134] Castan and Kee, above n 132, 86.

[135] Kerruish and Perrin, above n 32, 6; Golder, above n 32, 52.

[136] Yorta Yorta [2001] FCA 45; (2001) 110 FCR 244, 261–3 [55]–[60] (Black CJ).

[137] Ibid 262 [58].

[138] Ibid 266 [74].

[139] Ibid.

[140] Ibid 266 [73].

[141] See Yorta Yorta [1998] FCA 1606 (Unreported, Olney J, 18 December 1998) [118].

[142] Yorta Yorta [2001] FCA 45; (2001) 110 FCR 244, 266 [73] (Black CJ).

[143] [2003] FCA 666 (Unreported, Nicholson J, 3 July 2003).

[144] Ibid [149].

[145] Ibid.

[146] Ibid [10], [150]–[151], [175].

[147] Ibid [219].

[148] Ibid [415]–[429].

[149] Ibid [415]–[424].

[150] Ibid [421]. See also [424]. The Full Federal Court upheld Nicholson J's findings in relation to the continuity of connection, and did not dispute the general approach he took to the historical evidence. See Moses v State of Western Australia [2007] FCAFC 78; (2007) 160 FCR 148, 209 [248]–[249] and more generally 221-32 [301]–[344].

[151] See David Ritter, 'The Judgement of the World: The Yorta Yorta Case and the "Tide of History"' (2004) 35(123) Australian Historical Studies 106, 121.

[152] [2004] FCA 374 (Unreported, Madgwick J, 31 March 2004).

[153] Ibid [9]–[10] (the legislation was the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1983 (NSW)).

[154] Ibid [10]–[11].

[155] Ibid [109]. See also [110]–[117].

[156] Ibid [43].

[157] Ibid [111]. See also [116]–[117].

[158] Bartlett, above n 32, 45–6; French, above n 14, [73].

[159] For a discussion of judicial accountability in the interpretation of 'tradition', see Anthony Connolly, 'Conceiving of Tradition: Dynamics of Judicial Interpretation and Explanation in Native Title Law' in Suzanne Corcoran and Stephen Bottomley (eds), Interpreting Statutes (2005) 118.

[160] Issues of process, including the appropriate scope of judicial notice, remain undefined: Selway, above n 6, 130–5; Woods v Multi-Sport Holdings Pty Ltd (2002) 208 CLR 460, 184 [165] (Callinan J); Graham Mullane, 'Evidence of Social Science Research: Law, Practice and Options in the Family Court of Australia' (1998) 72 Australian Law Journal 434; M H Ogilvie, 'Case Notes: Evidence – Judicial Notice – Historical Documents and Historical Facts – Indian Treaty Rights' (1986) 64 Canadian Bar Review 183.

[161] For a discussion of 'possessory title' see Strelein, above n 42, 108–11; Alex Reilly, 'From a Jurisprudence of Regret to a Regrettable Jurisprudence: Shaping Native Title from Mabo to Ward' (2002) 9(4) E Law - Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law [73]–[80] <http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v9n4/reilly94nf.html> at 19 April 2008; Kent McNeil, 'Aboriginal Title and Aboriginal Rights: What's the Connection?' (1997) 36 Alberta Law Review 117.

[162] Brennan v Comcare [1994] FCA 1147; (1994) 50 FCR 555, 574–5 (Gummow J).

[163] K & S Lake City Freighters Pty Ltd v Gordon & Gotch Ltd [1985] HCA 48; (1985) 157 CLR 309, 315 (Mason J); CIC Insurance Ltd v Bankstown Football Club Ltd (1995) 187 CLR 348, 408 (Brennan CJ, Dawson, Toohey and Gummow JJ). See also D C Pearce and R S Geddes, Statutory Interpretation in Australia (6th ed, 2006) 71–2, 114–15; F A R Bennion, Statutory Interpretation: A Code (4th ed, 2002) 501–3.

[164] See Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) Preamble. See also the Explanatory Memorandum to the Act, which is referred to in Yorta Yorta [2001] FCA 45; (2001) 110 FCR 244, 276.

[165] See, eg, Peter Burke (ed), New Perspectives on Historical Writing (1991); Keith Jenkins, On 'What is History?': From Carr and Elton to Rorty and White (1995).

[166] Martin, above n 2, 1533–4; Donald P Boyle, 'Philosophy, History, and Judging' (1988) 30 William and Mary Law Review 181, 182–3; C Behan McCullagh, The Truth of History (1998) 41–2; Davison, above n 1, 53–4; Michael Oakeshott, 'The Activity of being an Historian' in Michael Oakeshott (ed), Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (1962) 137.

[167] Daniel A Farber, 'Adjudication of Things Past: Reflections on History as Evidence' (1998) 49 Hastings Law Journal 1009, 1027. The impact of postmodernism on history has generated an enormous body of literature: see, eg, Thomas L Haskell, 'Objectivity is Not Neutrality: Rhetoric vs. Practice in Peter Novick's That Noble Dream' (1990) 29 History and Theory 129; Joyce Appleby, Lynn Hunt and Margaret Jacob, Telling the Truth About History (1994) 198–237.

[168] Gary Goodpaster, 'On the Theory of American Adversary Criminal Trial' (1987) 78 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 118; Raymond A Belliotti, 'Our Adversary System: In Search of a Foundation' (1988) 1 Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence 19.

[169] See E H Carr's description of when a fact becomes a 'historical fact': E H Carr, What is History? (1961) 10–15. See also R C Lewontin, 'Facts and Factitious in Natural Sciences' (1991) 18 Critical Inquiry 140, 147–8.

[170] Ronald J Allen, 'The Nature of Juridical Proof' (1991) 13 Cardozo Law Review 373, 387–93; Hamar Foster and Alan Grove, 'Looking Behind Masks: A Land Claims Discussion Paper for Researchers, Lawyers and their Employers' (1993) 27 University of British Columbia Law Review 213, 220.

[171] Allen, above n 170, 391.

[172] Alexander Reilly, 'How Mabo Helps Us Forget' [2006] MqLawJl 4; (2006) 6 Macquarie Law Journal 25, 28; Evans, above n 74, 333–5.

[173] Allen, above n 170, 390. Cf Asher Maoz, 'Historical Adjudication: Courts of Law, Commissions of Inquiry, and "Historical Truth"' (2000) 18 Law and History Review 559, 605.

[174] Allen, above n 170, 387–91; Farber, above n 167, 1025–7.

[175] Note that some facts are 'indispensable intermediate facts': Chamberlain v The Queen (No 2) [1984] HCA 7; (1984) 153 CLR 521; Shepherd v The Queen [1990] HCA 56; (1990) 170 CLR 573.

[176] See, eg, Robert Manne (ed), Whitewash: On Keith Windschuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History (2003); Stuart Macintyre and Anna Clark, The History Wars (2003).

[177] Keith Windschuttle, The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One, Van Diemen's Land 1803–1847 (2002).

[178] Reilly and Genovese, above n 20, 36. See also David Ritter, 'No Title Without History' in Paul and Gray (eds), above n 20, 81.

[179] Reilly and Genovese, above n 20, 29. See Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 444 [44] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ). See also discussion in Part I, above.

[180] Reilly and Genovese, above n 20, 29.

[181] Ibid 30, 29.

[182] Ibid 29.

[183] Ibid 37.

[184] Ibid 35.

[185] Ibid.

[186] Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 456 [89] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

[187] Yorta Yorta [2002] HCA 58; (2002) 214 CLR 422, 460 [103] (Gaudron and Kirby JJ).

[188] Ibid.

[189] Ibid 466 [122] (referring to the judgment of Olney J at first instance).

[190] Ibid 460 [104].

[191] Ibid 466 [124] (emphasis added).

[192] Ibid 466 [123] (emphasis added).

[193] Ibid 463 [114].

[194] Ibid 464 [115].

[195] Ibid 463 [113].

[196] Ibid 464 [114].

[197] Ibid 463 [113].

[198] [2007] FCAFC 78; (2007) 160 FCR 148, 233 [352].

[199] Ibid 234 [358].

[200] De Rose [2003] FCAFC 286; (2003) 133 FCR 325, 394 [224], 396–7 [238] (Wilcox, Sackville and Merkel JJ); De Rose [2002] FCA 1342 (Unreported, O'Loughlin J, 1 November 2002) [316], [346], [372], [376].

[201] De Rose [2002] FCA 1342 (Unreported, O'Loughlin J, 1 November 2002) [345]–[346].

[202] Ibid [372].

[203] Ibid [346].

[204] See De Rose (No 2) (2005) 145 FCR 290, 296 [16]–[17].

[205] De Rose [2003] FCAFC 286; (2003) 133 FCR 325, 394 [224]. See also 393–5 [220]–[228] (Wilcox, Sackville and Merkel JJ).

[206] Ibid 398 [245] 401–2 [255]–[259]; De Rose (No 2) (2005) 145 FCR 290, 323 [113]. Note the possibility of connection via 'incorporation', which circumvents the need to rely on connection by virtue of the Western Desert Bloc: De Rose [2002] FCA 1342 (Unreported, O'Loughlin J, 1 November 2002) [346]; De Rose [2003] FCAFC 286; (2003) 133 FCR 325, 398–9 [243]–[246] (Wilcox, Sackville and Merkel JJ).

[207] De Rose [2003] FCAFC 286; (2003) 133 FCR 325, 409 [277]–[279], 417 [312] (Wilcox, Sackville and Merkel JJ), where Yorta Yorta is distinguished.

[208] The pastoralists' application for special leave to appeal was refused by the High Court on 10 February 2006. Note comments by Lindgren J in Harrington-Smith on behalf of the Wongatha People v State of Western Australia (No 9) [2007] FCA 31; (2007) 238 ALR 1, 50 [99], 94 [304].

[209] Peter Veth, '"Abandonment" or Maintenance of Country? A Critical Examination of Mobility Patterns and Implications for Native Title' (2003) 2(22) Land, Rights, Laws: Issues of Native Title <http://ntru.aiatsis.gov.au/ntpapers/IPv2n22.pdf> at 19 April 2008.

[210] (2006) 153 FCR 120.

[211] Bodney v Bennell [2008] FCAFC 63; (2008) 249 ALR 300, discussed below.

[212] Samantha Hepburn, 'Social Continuity and Forced Change: The Noongar Case' (2006) 174 Deakin Law Review 173, 173. See also Zoey Irvin, 'Wilcox J and Olney J: A Comparative Analysis of Historical Assumptions in the Yorta Yorta and Single Noongar Decisions' [2007] IndigLawB 6; (2006) 6(24) Indigenous Law Bulletin 24.

[213] Bennell v State of Western Australia (2006) 153 FCR 120, 317 [776].

[214] Ibid 317 [776].

[215] Ibid 317 [777].

[216] Ibid 318 [785].

[217] Ibid 319 [791].

[218] Bodney v Bennell [2008] FCAFC 63; (2008) 249 ALR 300, 318 [73].

[219] Ibid 318 [74].

[220] Ibid 324–5 [97]. But see also 328 [116].

[221] Risk v Northern Territory of Australia [2006] FCA 404 (Unreported, Dowsett J, 13 April 2006) [805].

[222] Ibid [812]–[840].

[223] Risk v Northern Territory of Australia [2007] FCAFC 46 (Unreported, French, Finn and Sundberg JJ, 5 April 2007) [25].

[224] Ibid [82].

[225] Ibid [83]–[85].

[226] Ibid [98]. An application for special leave to the High Court was dismissed by majority on 31 August 2007.

[227] Yorta Yorta [2001] FCA 45; (2001) 110 FCR 244, 263 [59] (Black CJ).

[228] Bennion, above n 163, 499–508.

[229] Connolly, above n 159, 118–21.

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