Wait, Michael --- "The Slumbering Sovereign: Sir Owen Dixon's Common Law Constitution Revisited" [2001] FedLawRw 3; (2001) 29(1) Federal Law Review 57
[*] BA (Hons), LLB (Hons) (Adel). I am indebted to Chief Justice Doyle of the Supreme Court of South Australia, and Professor Michael Detmold and Dr John Williams of the University of Adelaide for their comments and criticisms regarding earlier drafts of this article. I would also like to thank Belinda Baker, Macgregor Duncan, Geraldine Sladden, Pierina Reina and Noel Wait for their help.
[1] Ferrer v Arden [1572] EngR 137; (1599) 6 Co Rep 7a; (1599) 77 ER 263.
[2] For example, AM Gleeson, "Judicial Legitimacy" (2000) 20 Aust Bar Rev 4; WMC Gummow, Change and Continuity: Statute, Equity and Federalism (1999) at ixx.
[3] In this paper I adopt the meaning of sovereignty offered by McHugh J in McGinty v Western Australia [1996] HCA 48; (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 237: "ultimate sovereignty resides in the body which made and can amend the Constitution".
[4] [1999] HCA 30; (1999) 163 ALR 648.
[5] Ibid at [70].
[6] Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth [1992] HCA 45; (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 138 per Mason CJ; Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills [1992] HCA 46; (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 71 per Deane and Toohey JJ; McGinty v Western Australia [1996] HCA 48; (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 230 per McHugh J.
[7] [1997] HCA 25; (1997) 189 CLR 520.
[8] H Wright, "Sovereignty of the People – The New Constitutional Grundnorm?" (1998) 26 F L Rev 165 at 175-176.
[9] [1997] HCA 25; (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 566; recently reaffirmed in John Pfeiffer Pty Ltd v Rogerson [2000] HCA 36; (2000) 172 ALR 625; at [34] per Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ and at [142] per Kirby J.
[10] This appears to have been the approach of many commentators, including: A Stone, "Freedom of Political Communication, the Constitution and the Common Law" (1998) 26 F L Rev 219; N Aroney, "The Structure of Constitutional Revolutions: Are the Lange, Levy and Kruger Cases a Return to Normal Science?" [1998] UNSWLawJl 54; (1998) 21 UNSWLJ 645 at 655-656; M Jones, "Free Speech Revisited: The Implications of Lange & Levy" [1997] AUJlHRights 24; (1997) 4 AJHR 188 at 200.
[11] O Dixon, "The Statute of Westminster, 1931" in Jesting Pilate (1965) 82 at 82.
[12] Ibid at 99.
[13] Cf J Goldsworthy, The Sovereignty of Parliament: History and Philosophy (1999) and G Winterton, "Constitutionally Entrenched Common Law Rights: Sacrificing Means to Ends?" in C Sampford and K Preston (eds), Interpreting Constitutions (1996) 121 at 136.
[14] T Cornford, "Legal Remedies Against the Crown and its Officers" in M Suskin and S Payne (eds), The Nature of the Crown (1999) 233 at 233.
[15] N Seddon, "The Crown" (2000) 28 F L Rev 245 at 256.
[16] O Dixon, "Upon Taking the Oath of Office as Chief Justice" in Jesting Pilate (1965) 245 at 247.
[17] O Dixon, "The Common Law as an Ultimate Constitutional Foundation" in Jesting Pilate (1965) 203 at 205.
[18] J Latham, "Interpretation of the Constitution" in R Else-Mitchell (ed), Essays on the Australian Constitution (1961) 1 at 4.
[19] J Quick and R Garran, Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (1901) at 285.
[20] AV Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (10th ed 1959) at 73.
[21] Speech of Lord Haldane in the House of Commons delivered on the motion for leave to introduce the bill for the Australian Constitution Act, quoted in the Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd [1920] HCA 54; (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 147, per Knox CJ, Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ.
[22] 1865 (UK), s 2.
[23] R v Burah (1878) 3 App Cas 889 at 904, per Lord Selborne.
[24] L Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (4th ed 1997) at 139.
[25] T Blackshield and G Williams, Australian Constitutional Law and Theory: Commentary and Materials (2nd ed 1998) at 131.
[26] O Dixon, "Sources of Legal Authority" in Jesting Pilate (1965) 198 at 200.
[27] A Deakin, quoted in J Bennett, Keystone of the Federal Arch: A Historical Memoir of the High Court of Australia to 1980 (1980) at iii.
[28] AV Dicey above n 20 at 147-148.
[29] O Dixon, "The Law and the Constitution" in Jesting Pilate (1965) 38 at 50.
[30] AV Dicey above n 20 at 175.
[31] O Dixon above n 26 at 199.
[32] V Windeyer, "‘A Birthright and Inheritance’ – Establishment of the Rule of Law in Australia" [1962] UTasLawRw 1; (1962) 1 U Tas LR 635 at 653. The notion of the common law as a birthright was first expounded by W Blackstone in Commentaries on the Laws of England: Volume I, Of the Rights of Persons (5th ed 1773) at 107.
[33] 9 Geo IV, c 83, 1828 (UK).
[34] V Windeyer above n 32 at 636.
[35] Uther v Federal Commissioner of Taxation [1947] HCA 45; (1947) 74 CLR 508 at 521.
[37] Ibid at 427 per Dixon J.
[38] O Dixon above n 29 at 47.
[39] Colonial Laws Validity Act, 1865 (UK), s 2.
[40] 1931 (UK).
[41] O Dixon above n 11 at 86.
[42] M Detmold, The Australian Commonwealth: A Fundamental Analysis of its Constitution (1985) at 7-8.
[43] H Moore, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (2nd ed 1910) at 66.
[44] O Dixon above n 29 at 42.
[45] O Dixon above n 26 at 200.
[46] O Dixon above n 29 at 59.
[47] AV Dicey above n 20 at 149.
[48] A Fraser, "False Hopes: Implied Rights and Popular Sovereignty in the Australian Constitution" [1994] SydLawRw 18; (1994) 16 Syd LR 228 at 228.
[49] O Dixon, "The Statute of Westminster, 1931" in Jesting Pilate (1965) at 82.
[50] Ibid at 99.
[51] AV Dicey above n 20 at 149.
[52] O Dixon, "The Common Law as an Ultimate Constitutional Foundation", "Sources of Legal Authority" and "The Law and the Constitution" in Jesting Pilate (1965).
[53] J Salmond, Jurisprudence (12th ed 1966) at 111-112.
[54] O Dixon above n 17 at 207.
[55] Ibid at 204, quoting H Bracton, On the Laws and Customs of England: Volume II (1968) at 304.
[56] TRS Allan "The Common Law as Constitution; Fundamental Rights and First Principles" in C Saunders (ed), Courts of Final Jurisdiction: The Mason Court in Australia (1996) at 156.
[57] O Dixon above n 29 at 43.
[58] O Dixon above n 26 at 199.
[59] R Dworkin, Law’s Empire (1986) at viii. For a comparison of the jurisprudence of Dixon and Dworkin see: D Dawson, Do Judges Make Law? Too Much? (unpublished paper, copy held in the law library at the University of Adelaide) at 5-6.
[60] O Dixon above n 16 at 247.
[61] D Dawson above n 59 at 4.
[62] O Dixon, "Concerning Judicial Method" in Jesting Pilate (1965) 152 at 165.
[63] T Blackshield, "The Implied Freedom of Communication" in G Lindell (ed), Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law: Essays in Honour of Professor Leslie Zines (1994) 232 at 260.
[64] O Dixon above n 17 at 205.
[65] O Dixon, "Government Under the American Constitution" in Jesting Pilate (1965) 106 at 106.
[66] K Mason, "The Rule of Law" in P Finn (ed), Essays on Law and Government, Volume I: Principles and Values (1996) 114 at 123. Though Mason is not here referring to Dixon, the distinction that he draws is, I believe, pertinent to Dixon’s method.
[67] O Dixon above n 17 at 206.
[68] R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers’ Society of Australia [1956] HCA 10; (1956) 94 CLR 254 at 271-272 per Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ.
[69] S Gageler, "Foundations of Australian Federalism and the Role of Judicial Review" (1987) 17 F L Rev 162 at 175; A Mason, "Future Directions in Australian Law" [1987] MonashULawRw 6; (1987) 13 Monash LR 149 at 158; K Booker and A Glass, "What Makes the Engineers Case a Classic?" in M Coper and G Williams (eds), How Many Cheers for Engineers? (1997) 45 at 52; G Williams, "The Impact of Engineers: Engineers and Implied Rights" in M Coper and G Williams (eds), How Many Cheers for Engineers? (1997) 105 at 107; L Zines above n 24 at 425.
[70] K Booker and A Glass above n 69 at 57.
[71] D Dawson above n 59 at 4 – 5, quoting from one of Dixon’s letters to Latham.
[72] Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd [1920] HCA 54; (1920) 28 CLR 129.
[73] Ibid at 152 per Knox CJ, Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ.
[74] G Craven, "The Crisis of Constitutional Literalism in Australia" in HP Lee and G Winterton (eds), Australian Constitutional Perspectives (1992) 1 at 6. The debate as to the ‘true’ meaning of the Engineers’ Case is long-standing. For instance, two early contributions include a literalist interpretation by W Wynns, Legislative and Executive Power (1936) and a legalist analysis by A Garran, "Development of the Constitution" (1924) 40 LQR 202.
[75] Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth [1951] HCA 5; (1951) 83 CLR 1.
[76] Ibid at 193 per Dixon J.
[77] Ibid at 193 per Dixon J.
[78] Stenhouse v Coleman [1944] HCA 36; (1944) 69 CLR 457.
[79] Ibid at 470 per Dixon J.
[80] L Zines above n 24 at 239.
[81] G Winterton, "The Separation of Judicial Power as an Implied Bill of Rights" in G Lindell (ed), Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law: Essays in Honour of Professor Leslie Zines (1994) 185 at 187. Although in both R v Federal Court of Bankruptcy; Ex parte Lowenstein [1938] HCA 10; (1938) 59 CLR 556, and R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers’ Society of Australia [1956] HCA 10; (1956) 94 CLR 254, Dixon CJ derived the separation of powers doctrine from the text of the Constitution, his comments in Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth [1951] HCA 5; (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 193 clearly indicate that he regarded the doctrine to be a common law one which had been inscribed into the Constitution.
[82] For example, Bonham’s Case [1572] EngR 106; (1610) 8 Co Rep 107a; 77 ER 646.
[83] O Dixon above n 17 at 205.
[84] Ibid at 206.
[85] O Dixon above n 29 at 41.
[86] O Dixon above n 62 at 153.
[87] In the case of Trawl Industries v Effem Foods [1992] FCA 272; (1992) 36 FCR 406 at 411, Gummow J suggested that Dixon’s constitutionalism might provide a justification for applying various common law estoppels within federal jurisdiction.
[88] [1997] HCA 25; (1997) 189 CLR 520.
[89] Ibid at 565.
[90] [1998] HCA 22; (1998) 195 CLR 337.
[91] Ibid at [89] per Gummow and Hayne JJ.
[92] Interestingly P Keyzer has recently suggested that the right to natural justice might soon emerge, not as a citizenship right, but from the common law of the Constitution: P Keyzer "Pfeiffer, Lange, the common law of the Constitution and the Constitutional right to natural justice" (2000) 20 Aust Bar Rev 87.
[93] [1998] HCA 30; (1999) 163 ALR 648.
[94] Ibid at [70] per Gleeson CJ, Gummow & Hayne JJ.
[95] WMC Gummow above n 2 at xx.
[96] 1986 (Cth) and 1986 (UK).
[97] G Craven above n 74 at 13.
[98] Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth [1992] HCA 45; (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 138 per Mason CJ; McGinty v Western Australia [1996] HCA 48; (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 230 per McHugh J, saying "the political and legal sovereignty of Australia now resides in the people of Australia".
[99] P Finn, "A Sovereign People, A Public Trust" in P Finn (ed), Essays on Law and Government (1995) 1 at 4.
[100] Cf G Winterton, "Popular Sovereignty and Constitutional Continuity" (1998) 26 F L Rev 1.
[101] H Wright above n 8 at 167.
[102] A Mason, "The Interpretation of a Constitution in a Modern Liberal Democracy" in C Sampford and K Preston, Interpreting Constitutions: Theories, Principles and Institutions (1996) 13 at 28.
[103] Polyukovich v Commonwealth [1991] HCA 32; (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 609 and 611 per Deane J and at 613 per Gaudron J.
[104] Lim v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1992) 176 CLR 1 at 27-29 per Brennan, Deane and Dawson JJ. Gaudron J agreed at 55, though she did not regard all detention to be punitive in nature.
[105] Dietrich v R [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 326 and 330 per Deane J.
[106] Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 502 per Gaudron J.
[107] J Toohey, "A Government of Laws, and Not of Men?" (1993) 4 PLR 158 at 170.
[108] G Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776 – 1787 (1969) at 362.
[109] A Fraser, "Strong Republicanism and a Citizen’s Constitution" in W Hudson and D Carter (eds), The Republicanism Debate (1993) at 58-59.
[110] J Doyle, "Implications of Judicial Law-Making" in C Saunders (ed), Courts of Final Jurisdiction (1996) 84 at 96.
[111] S Gageler above n 69 at 173.
[112] [1997] HCA 25; (1997) 189 CLR 520 at 567 per the Court.
[113] Cf M Detmold "Provocation to Murder: Sovereignty and Multiculture" [1997] SydLawRw 1; (1997) 19 Syd LR 5 at 31, fn 91.
[114] L Kerber, "Making Republicanism Useful" (1988) 97 Yale LJ 1663 at 1665.
[115] H Patapan, "Politics of Interpretation" [2000] SydLawRw 11; (2000) 22 Syd LR 247 at 271.