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Guilfoyle, Douglas --- "Nulyarimma v Thompson: Is Genocide a Crime at Common Law in Australia?" [2001] FedLawRw 1; (2001) 29(1) Federal Law Review 1

[*] BA(Hons) LLB(Hons) (ANU); Solicitor, Mallesons Stephen Jaques, Sydney.

[1] Cth Parl Deb 1949, Vol 203 at 1873 per Dr Evatt.

[2] ATS 1951 No. 2.

[3] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [20] and [81]; M Flynn, "Genocide: it's a Crime Everywhere, but not in Australia" [2000] UWALawRw 4; (2000) 29 UWALR 59 at 63.

[4] Anti-Genocide Bill 1999 (Cth): introduced into the Senate and second reading adjourned 13 October 1999; Bill and related matters referred to Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee, report tabled 14 August 2000.

[5] Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951 ICJ Rep 15 at 23.

[6] Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Ah Hin Teoh (Teoh) [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J, at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J, at 87 per Toohey J; and note Parlement Belge (1879) 4 PD 129; (1880) 5 PD 197.

[7] Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen [1982] HCA 27; (1982) 153 CLR 168 at 203-4 per Gibbs CJ; A Mason, "International law as a source of domestic law" in B R Opeskin and D R Rothwell (eds), International Law and Australian Federalism (1997) 210 at 213 and 220; cf L Erades, Interaction between International and Municipal Law: a Comparative Case Law Study (1993) at 859.

[8] I Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (5th ed 1998) at 42; M N Shaw, International Law (4th ed 1997) at 105-110; D J Harris, Cases And Materials On International Law (5th ed 1998) at 74-83; D W Greig, International Law (2nd ed 1976) at 57; F A Mann, Foreign Affairs in English Courts (1986) at 121; L Erades, above n 7 at 665, 883-4; the phrasing is adopted from: Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 43 per Brennan J.

[9] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [54] per Whitlam J.

[10] Ibid at [53] per Whitlam J.

[11] Polites v The Commonwealth [1945] HCA 3; (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 68 per Latham CJ, at 74 per Rich J, at 77 per Dixon J, at 79 per McTiernan J, and at 81 per Williams J; Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J, and at 87-8 per Toohey J; Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 287-8 per Mason CJ and Deane J, and at 315 per McHugh J (only in the case of actual ambiguity).

[12] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [163]-[165] per Merkel J; see also 5.3.3, below.

[13] See 5.3.4, below.

[14] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621.

[15] Brownlie above n 8; Statute of the International Court of Justice, ATS 1945 No. 1, Article 38(1).

[16] Ibid at 4-11; Shaw above n 8 at 58-59 and 67.

[17] Shaw above n 8 at 59-61; Brownlie above n 8 at 5-7.

[18] Ibid at 58 and 68-70; Brownlie above n 8 at 5-11.

[19] Ibid at 65; cf Brownlie above n 8 at 5; I A Shearer, Starke's International Law (11th ed 1994) at 32-4; for an example of awareness of this in the federal Parliament see: Cth Parl Deb 1949, Vol 203 at 1873 per Dame Enid Lyons.

[20] Brownlie above n 8 at 7; cf H Burmester, "Ascertaining International Human Rights Rules and Standards in Domestic Courts: War Crimes and Other Examples" in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 311 at 315.

[21] H Charlesworth, "Customary International Law and the Nicaragua Case" [1984] AUYrBkIntLaw 1; (1984-7) 11 Australian Yearbook of International Law 1 at 24; cf Burmester above n 20 at 315.

[22] Ibid at 12; Shaw above n 8 at 75-6.

[23] Ibid; Shaw above n 8 at 75.

[24] M Dixon and R McCorquodale, Cases and Materials on International Law (3rd edn 2000) at 44; Shaw above n 8 at 96; cf R Jennings and A Watts (eds) Oppenheim's International Law Volume I Peace: Indtroduction and Part I (9th edn 1992) at 26; though note contra Brownlie above n 8 at 4.

[25] Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951 ICJ Rep 15 at 23; T Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Custom (1989) at 11; A Cassese, Human Rights in a Changing World (1990) at 78.

[26] Brownlie above n 8 at 517; H Steiner and P Alston, International Human Rights in Context: Law Politics Morals (1996) at 133 and 145-7; L Hannikainen, Peremptory Norms (Jus Cogens) in International Law: Historical Development Criteria Present Status (1988) at 456ff; L Sunga, The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation (1997) at 115, 117 and 246; Meron above n 25 at 11 fn 17; P Mathew, "International Law and the protection of Human Rights in Australia" [1995] SydLawRw 15; (1995) 17 SydLR 177 at 179 and fn 9; Shearer above n 19 at 49; D J Harris above n 8 at 836-7.

[27] Brownlie above n 8 at 515-6; Shaw above n 8 at 97-98; I Detter, The International Legal Order (1994) at 174; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, ATS 1974 No. 2, Articles 53 and 64.

[28] General Assembly Resolution 96 (1), 11 December 1946; noted in the preamble to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2; see Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277 at 296-7; cf approach of the International Court of Justice in Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United states of America) (Merits) (1986) ICJ Rep 14 at paras 193, 202, 203 and 205.

[29] Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951 ICJ Rep 15 at 23.

[30] Barcelona Traction Light and Power Co Ltd Case (Second Phase) 1970 ICJ Rep 3 at 32; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua Case 1986 ICJ Rep 3 at 134-7.

[31] Ibid.

[32] Meron above n 25 at 191-5; Cassese above n 25 at 78.

[33] Ibid at 194; A Mitchell, "Genocide, Human Rights Implementation and the Relationship between International and Domestic Law: Nulyarimma v Thompson" [2000] MelbULawRw 2; (2000) 24 MULR 15 at 20.

[34] Brownlie above n 8 at 515; Shaw above n 8 at 96; cf Sunga above n 26 at 115; Cassese above n 25 at 79; Meron above n 25 at 194.

[35] Ibid at 517; Steiner and Alston above n 26 145-7; Hannikainen above n 26 at 456ff; L Sunga above n 26 at 115, 117 and 246; Meron above n 25 at 11 fn 17; Mathew above n 26 at 179 and fn 9; Shearer above n 19 at 49; Harris above n 26 at 836-7.

[36] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [18] per Wilcox J. On some of the difficulties in proposing that genocide was a crime except where connected with a war crime before 1946 see: Polyukhovich v Commonwealth [1991] HCA 32; (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 587 per Brennan J and 676 per Toohey J.

[37] Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951 ICJ Rep 15 at 23.

[38] Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2; note the acceptance of this proposition domestically: Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [18] per Wilcox J, [36] and [57] per Whitlam J and at [78] and [140]-[141] per Merkel J.

[39] ICTR: Prosecutor v Ayesku 37 ILM 1399 (1998) at 1406.

[40] Cassese above n 25 at 76; ICTR: Prosecutor v Ayesku 37 ILM 1399 (1998) at 1406-7.

[41] Brownlie above n 8 at 14.

[42] Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) (1986) ICJ Rep 14.

[43] Charlesworth above n 21 at 18; Ibid at paras 193, 202, 203, 204 and 205.

[44] Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) (1986) ICJ Rep 14 at para 189.

[45] Charlesworth above n 21 at 24; Burmester above n 20 at 315.

[46] Ibid at 24 and 26-8.

[47] Ibid at 10, 22 and 28.

[48] United Nations Security Council Resolution 955 Establishing the International Tribunal for Rwanda November 8 1994, 33 ILM 1598 (1994), Article 2 (at 1602) and note Article 6 (at 1604-5); United Nations Security Council Resolution 827 on Establishing an International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia, 25 May 1993, 32 ILM 1203 (1993) adopting United Nations Secretary-General's Report on Aspects of Establishing an International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia, 32 ILM 1159 (1993), Article 4 (at 1193) and Article 7 (at 1194).

[49] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 37 ILM 999 (1998), Article 6 (at 1004), note also Article 25(3)(e) (at 1016) and Article 5(1)(a) (at 1003); not yet in force.

[50] The United Nations, Department of Public Information, Setting the Record Straight: The International Criminal Court, http://www.un.org/News/facts/iccfact.htm.

[51] Hannikainen above n 26 at 460-2; Meron above n 32 at 11; Steiner and Alston above n 26 at 1049-50.

[52] Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2, Article 6.

[53] Steiner and Alston above n 26 at 99-100 and 1024-5, quoting Restatement (Third) Foreign Relations Law of the United States s 404; M Wenig, "Enforcing the Lessons of History: Israel Judges the Holocaust" in T McCormick and G Simpson (eds), The Law of War Crimes: National and International Approaches (1997) 103 at 107; L Beres, "Genocide and Genocide-Like Crimes" in M Bassiouni (ed), International Criminal Law: Volume I Crimes (1986) 271 at 274-6; M Bassiouni, "Introduction to the Genocide Convention" in M Bassiouni (ed), International Criminal Law: Volume I Crimes (1986) 281 at 286; Shaw above n 8 at 472 but cf at 473; cf Brownlie above n 8 at 46-7; note also discussion in Polyukhovich v Commonwealth [1991] HCA 32; (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 562-76 per Brennan J and 661-3 per Toohey J.

[54] Anti-Genocide Bill 1999 (Cth): introduced into the Senate and second reading adjourned 13 October 1999; Bill and related matters referred to Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee, report tabled 14 August 2000.

[55] The origins of the policy of prior enactment of implementing legislation can be seen in: D Williams, "Australia's Treaty-Making Procedures: The Coalition's Reform Proposals" in P Alston and M Chiam (eds), Treaty-Making and Australia: Globalisation versus Sovereignty? (1995) 185 at 194.

[56] Sen Deb 1974, Vol 61 at 965 per Senator Willesee.

[57] Mitchell above n 33 at 22; A Mitchell, H Charlesworth, R McCorquodale and P Mathew, Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee: inquiry into Anti-Genocide Bill 1999 Submission no. 26, 18.2.2000, at 7-8 referring to Memorandum for the Secretary, Department of External Affairs from G A Watson, Acting Secretary, Attorney General's Department, Canberra, Ref 47/740, 6 April 1949.

[58] Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, A Review of Australia's Efforts to Promote and Protect Human Rights (1992) at 32; Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, A Review of Australia's Efforts to Promote and Protect Human Rights (1994) at 26; Senate Legal and Constitutional Committee, Humanity Diminished: The Crime of Genocide (2000) at [3.46].

[59] Brownlie above n 8 at 515-6; Shaw above n 8 at 97-98; Detter above n 27 at 174; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, ATS 1974 No. 2, Articles 53 and 64.

[60] Erades above n 7 at 665.

[61] K Walker, "Treaties and the Internationalisation of Australian Law" in C Saunders (ed), Courts of Final Jurisdiction: The Mason Court in Australia (1996) 204 at 231; Shaw above n 8 at 106ff.

[62] Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (reprinted 1982), Book 4, at 67.

[63] The logical circularity of the last category is noted in: Mitchell above n 33 at 27.

[64] Ibid at 26-7; or "weak incorporation" per Walker above n 61 at 231.

[65] On the doctrines as expressions of the monism and dualism theories of the relation between international and domestic law, see: Mitchell above n 33 at 26; I A Shearer, "The relation between international law and domestic law" in B R Opeskin and D R Rothwell (eds), International Law and Australian Federalism (1997) 34 at 36; Shaw above n 8 at 105.

[66] Brownlie above n 8 at 46-7; Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 298 per Toohey J.

[67] Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J and at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87 per Toohey J; and note Parlement Belge (1879) 4 PD 129; (1880) 5 PD 197.

[68] S Donaghue "Balancing Sovereignty and International Law: the Domestic Impact of International Law in Australia" [1995] AdelLawRw 6; (1995) 17 Adel LR 213 at 224-6 and 261; M Kirby, "The Australian use of international human rights norms: From Bangalore to Balliol – a view from the antipodes" [1993] UNSWLawJl 15; (1993) 16 UNSWLJ 363 at 369.

[69] Ibid; and note G Winterton "Limits to the Use of the 'Treaty Power'" in P Alston and M Chiam (eds), Treaty-Making and Australia: Globalisation versus Sovereignty? (1995) 29 at 34.

[70] Donaghue above n 68 at 261; Charlesworth above n 21 at 3-4; Brownlie above n 8 at 10; cf Jennings and Watts above n 24 at 29.

[71] Donaghue above n 68 at 261.

[72] Shaw above n 8 at 96; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 44; cf Jennings and Watts above n 24 at 26; though note Brownlie above n 8 at 4.

[73] Donaghue above n 68 at 261.

[74] Note Merkel J's conclusion as to the relation between jus cogens and statutory immunities conferred on members of Parliament: Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [193], cf [181].

[75] Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J and at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87 per Toohey J.

[76] Donaghue above n 68 at 214; Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 569 per Stephenson LJ; Mann above n 8 at 124; G Triggs, "Customary international law and Australian law" in M Ellinghaus, A Bradbrook and A Duggan, The Emergence of Australian Law (1989) at 384.

[77] J Crawford and W Edeson, "International Law and Australian Law" in K Ryan (ed) International Law and Australian Law (2nd end 1985) 71 at 73.

[78] Ibid; Shearer above n 65 at 42; Mitchell above n 33 at 27; Triggs above n 76 at 382-3; Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 567 per Stephenson LJ.

[79] Erades above n 7 at 858.

[80] Ibid at 859.

[81] Shaw above n 8 at 108 (emphasis added).

[82] Note: Brownlie above n 8 at 44; Triggs above n 76 at 384-5; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 121.

[83] Brownlie above n 8 at 41; Mann above n 8 at 125-8; Burmester above n 20 at 312-3.

[84] Burmester above n 20 at 312-5.

[85] Ibid at 315.

[86] Ibid at 316-7.

[87] Ibid at 314; cf International Tin Council Case [1990] 2 AC 418 at 513 per Lord Oliver.

[88] Shaw above n 8 at 108; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 121; cf Burmester above n 20 at 314-5.

[89] Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J and at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87 per Toohey J; and note Parlement Belge (1879) 4 PD 129; (1880) 5 PD 197.

[90] Donaghue above n 68 at 261.

[91] Chow Hung Ching v The King [1948] HCA 37; (1949) 77 CLR 449 at 477; Kirby above n 68 at 368; Donaghue above n 68 at 264-5; M Allars, "International law and administrative discretion" in B R Opeskin and D R Rothwell (eds), International Law and Australian Federalism (1997) 232 at 238; Shearer above n at 40 fn 25 and 49-50; Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [131] per Merkel J; Commonwealth v Yarmirr [1999] FCA 1668; (1999) 168 ALR 426; at [426]-[427] per Merkel J.

[92] Crawford and Edeson above n 77 at 73.

[93] Mason above n 7 at 214.

[94] Ibid at 216; Triggs above n 76 at 384.

[95] Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Harris above n 8 at 74-83; Greig above n 8 at 57; Mann above n 76 at 121; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4.

[96] [1764] EngR 44; (1764) 3 Burr. 1478 at 1481 per Mansfield CJ citing the dicta of Talbot LC in Barbuit's Case [1715] EngR 43; (1737) Forr. 280, 25 ER 77.

[97] Blackstone above n 62 at 67.

[98] Shaw above n 8 at 108; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 121; cf Burmester above n 20 at 314-5.

[99] West Rand Central Gold Mining Company Limited v The King [1905] 2 KB 391.

[100] Ibid at 407.

[101] Ibid at 404-406.

[102] Ibid at 408.

[103] Chung Chi Cheung v The King [1938] UKPC 75; [1939] AC 160.

[104] In contrast to the Courts of Admiralty, which historically applied international law directly without creating new rules of domestic law: Erades above n 7 at 664.

[105] Chung Chi Cheung v The King [1938] UKPC 75; [1939] AC 160 at 167-168 (emphasis added).

[106] Brownlie above n 8 at 42; and note: Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Harris above n 8 at 74-83; Greig above n 8 at 57; Mann above n 76 at 121; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4.

[107] Crawford and Edeson above n 77 at 73.

[108] In Re Piracy Jure Gentium [1934] AC 586; cf the advertence to universal jurisdiction in Companhia de Mocambique v British South Africa Co (1892) 2 QB 358 at 395 per Lord Esher MR.

[109] Ibid.

[110] Ibid at 589.

[111] Ibid at 589 and cf 595.

[112] Ibid at 594.

[113] Note: ibid at 593.

[114] Ibid at 593 and 597.

[115] Shearer above n 65 at 40.

[116] Brownlie above n 8 at 43; Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 553-4 per Lord Denning MR; Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [83], [88], [89] and [99] per Merkel J.

[117] Brownlie above n 8 at 44; Shaw above n 8 at 106-7; Greig above n 8 at 57.

[118] [1977] 1 QB 529.

[119] R v Secretary of state for the Home Department Ex parte Thakar [1964] QB 684 at 701.

[120] Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 554.

[121] Ibid at 557-8.

[122] Ibid at 558.

[123] Ibid at 570-2.

[124] Mann above n 76 at 124-5.

[125] J Spigelmen, "Rule of Law – Human Rights Protection" (1999) 18 Aust Bar Rev 29 at 30-31, and passim on the impact of English law's reception of the European Convention on Human Rights 1950; cf R Buxton, "The Human Rights Act and Private Law" (2000) 116 LQR 48; on the impact upon common law, see for example: A Lester, "The Impact of Europe on the English Constitution" (1992) 3 PLR 228 at 237-41.

[126] Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42 per Brennan J.

[127] J Kidd, "Can International Law Protect Our Civil Rights? The Australian and English Experience Compared" (1995) UQLJ 305 at 314.

[128] Lester above n 125 at 231ff; cf on the influence of international decisions and standards: R Nicholson, "A Profound Change to United Kingdom Law: Domestic Application of the European Convention on Human Rights" (1998) 72 ALJ 946 at 954; M Kirby, "The Role of International Standards in Australian Courts" in P Alston, and M Chiam (eds), Treaty-Making and Australia: Globalisation versus Sovereignty? (1995) 81 at 86.

[129] J Perry, "At the intersection – Australian and international law" (1997) 71 ALJ 841 at 841; Mason above n 7 at 210; on human rights in particular note: M Kirby, "Implications of the Internationalisation of Human Rights Law" in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 276 at 297-8; M Duffy, "The Internationalisation of Human Rights" in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 299 at 299-301; M Kirby above n 128 at 86; J Crawford, "International Law and Australian Federalism: Past, Present and Future" in B R Opeskin and D R Rothwell (eds), International Law and Australian Federalism (1997) 330 at 332.

[130] Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 557-8 per Lord Denning MR and at 570-1 per Stephenson J.

[131] [1977] 1 QB 529.

[132] [1990] 2 AC 418.

[133] Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4; Mann above n 8 at 121.

[134] [1948] HCA 37; (1949) 77 CLR 449.

[135] Ibid at 487-8 per McTiernan J and at 488-9 per Williams J.

[136] Ibid at 471; and note the discussion at 4.2.2.

[137] Ibid at 462 (footnotes omitted).

[138] Ibid at 462-5; on these authorities see: Shaw above n 8 at 107-8; though note A Mason, "Influence of International and Transnational Law on Australian Municipal Law" (1996) 7 PLR 20 at 24.

[139] Chow Hung Ching v The King [1948] HCA 37; (1949) 77 CLR 449 at 477.

[140] LJ Brierly, "International Law in England" (1935) 51 LQR 24.

[141] Ibid at 31.

[142] Chow Hung Ching v The King [1948] HCA 37; (1949) 77 CLR 449 at 462, quoting Sir William Holdsworth "Relation of English Law to International Law" Essays in Law and History, at 267.

[143] Donaghue above n 68 at 265.

[144] Mason above n 138 at 24.

[145] Donaghue above n 68 at 265; Crawford and Edeson above n 77 at 73.

[146] Brownlie above n 8 at 44; Shaw above n 8 at 106-7; Greig above n 8 at 57; see also: Donaghue above n 68 at 264 and fn 234.

[147] Polites v Commonwealth [1945] HCA 3; (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 72 per Latham CJ.

[148] Ibid at 80-1.

[149] Ibid at 81.

[150] Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1.

[151] [1975] HCA 58; (1975) 135 CLR 337.

[152] Seas and Submerged Lands Case [1975] HCA 58; (1975) 135 CLR 337 at 407.

[153] Ibid at 465-6.

[154] Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529.

[155] Seas and Submerged Lands Case [1975] HCA 58; (1975) 135 CLR 337 at 496.

[156] Ibid at 500-1.

[157] [1977] HCA 36; (1977) 138 CLR 346 at 394-5.

[158] Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen [1982] HCA 27; (1982) 153 CLR 168 at 203-4 per Gibbs CJ.

[159] Mason above n 7 at 213 and 220; the point was not even raised directly in the Kruger Case: Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 88 per Toohey J.

[160] Polites v The Commonwealth [1945] HCA 3; (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 68 per Latham CJ, at 74 per Rich J, at 77 per Dixon J, at 79 per McTiernan J and at 81 per Williams J; Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87-8 per Toohey J; Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 287-8 per Mason CJ and Deane J and at 315 per McHugh J.

[161] Applicant A v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1997) 190 CLR 225 at 230-1 per Brennan CJ.

[162] Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273; this decision has been contentious and the subject of Commonwealth legislative attempts to over-turn it: Donaghue above n 68 at 258; Mathew above n at 203; Crawford above n at 335-6; D Rothwell, "Quasi-Incorporation of International Law in Australia: Broadcasting Standards, Cultural Sovereignty and International Trade" (1999) 27 F L Rev 527 at 529.

[163] Project Blue Sky v Australian Broadcasting Authority (1998) 194 CLR 355 passim, but note 391-2 per McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ.

[164] See, for example: Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth [1992] HCA 45; (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 140 per Mason CJ, at 154 per Brennan J and at 211 per Gaudron J.

[165] Allars above n 91 at 245.

[166] Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42 per Brennan J.

[167] Mathew above n 26 at 195; Donaghue above n 68 at 265 fn 236.

[168] Mabo v Queensland [No [1904] HCA 32; 2] (1992) CLR 1 at 42.

[169] See 4.7 and 7, below.

[170] Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42 per Brennan J; Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 321 per Brennan J; Kirby J had earlier articulated this conception of treaty law as an influence on judicial law making: Jago v District Court of New South Wales (1988) 12 NSWLR 558 at 569 per Kirby P.

[171] Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 286-7 per Mason CJ and Deane J, at 298 per Toohey J and at 315 per McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 71 per Dawson J and at 87 per Toohey J.

[172] Mathew above n 26 at 196-7; Kirby above n 68 at 369; Allars above n 91 at 238.

[173] Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J.

[174] Jago v District Court of New South Wales (1988) 12 NSWLR 558 at 569 per Kirby P.

[175] Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 per at 360 per Toohey J.

[176] Harry v Mental Health Review Tribunal (1994) 33 NSWLR 315 at 323 per Kirby P; Jago v District Court of New South Wales (1988) 12 NSWLR 558 at 569 per Kirby P; M Kirby above n 68 at 374; M Kirby, "Implications of the Internationalisation of Human Rights Law" in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994), 276 at 288 and 297; and see I A Shearer, "International Legal Notes" (1995) 69 ALJ 404 at 405 quoting Kirby J; A Mason above n 7 at 223 and fn 84.

[177] Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 315 per McHugh J; Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J, cf Dawson J at 349 and Toohey J at 360.

[178] Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 288 per Mason CJ and Deane J, cf 304 per Gaudron J (concurring with Mason CJ and Deane J).

[179] Ibid at 315 per McHugh J.

[180] [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 at 70-1 per Dawson J and at 88 per Toohey J.

[181] Ibid, and see also at 159 per Gummow J.

[182] Mathew above n 26 at 196-7; M Kirby above n 68 at 369; Allars above n 91 at 238.

[183] L Henkin, "The Constitution and US Sovereignty: a Century of Chinese Exclusion and its Progeny" (1987) 100 Harv LR 853 at 866; M Glennon, "Raising the Paquete Habana: is Violation of Customary International Law by the Executive Unconstitutional?" (1985) North Western U Law Rev 321 at 345 and 347.

[184] The Paquete Habana [1900] USSC 8; 175 US 677, 700 (1900).

[185] First National City Bank v Banco Para et Comerico Exterior 426 US 611, 623 (1983); Banco Nacional v Sabatino [1964] USSC 48; 376 US 398, 423 (1964); Skirotes v Florida [1941] USSC 120; 313 US 69, 72-73 (1941); Berizzi Bros Co v SS Pesaro [1926] USSC 159; 271 US 562 (1926); cf Filartiga v Pena Irala [1980] USCA2 576; 630 F 2d 876, 887 (2d Cir 1980).

[186] Shaw above n 8 at 114-5; Erades above n 7 at 859; Editorial Comment: "Is the President Above Customary International Law?" (1992) 86 AJIL 757 at 760; Henkin above n 183 at 867 and 874-6; L Henkin, "International Law as Law in the US" (1984) 82 Michigan L Rev 1555 at 1555; Glennon above n 183 passim; M Goldklang, "Back on Board the Paquete Habana: Resolving the Conflicts between Statutes and Customary International Law" (1984) 25 Virg J of Int Law 143 passim but note 144-7.

[187] The Constitution of the United States of America, Article I, section 8.

[188] C Maxwell and A Bayefsky, "The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and Public International Law" (1983) 61 Canadian Bar Rev 265 at 277-80; D Woloshyn, "To What Extent can Canadian Courts be Expected to Enforce International Human Rights in Civil Litigation?" (1985-6) 50 Sask Law Rev 1 at 8; Erades above n 7 at 577-8 and 862; Shearer above n 65 at 40; Foreign Legations Case [1943] SCR 20 at 208, 214, 230-1 per Duff CJ and 232-3 per Rinfret J.

[189] Reference as to Powers to Levy Rates on Foreign Legations and High-Commissioner' Residences [1943] SCR 208 at 214, 230-1 per Duff CJ and 232 per Rinfret J.

[190] Reference re Exemption of US Forces from Canadian Criminal Law [1943] 4 DLR 11 at 41 per Taschereau J.

[191] Maxwell and Bayefsky above n 188 at 279.

[192] Re Alberta Provincial Employees and The Crown (1980) 120 DLR (3d) 590 at 620-1 per Sinclair CJQB.

[193] S Butler and P Butler, "The Judicial Use of International Human Rights Law in New Zealand" (1999) 29 U of Wellington L Rev 173 at 177.

[194] Marine Steel Ltd v Government of the Marshall Islands [1981] 2 NZLR 1 at 4, 8 and 9 per Barker J; Governor of Pitcairn Island v Sutton [1995] 1 NZLR 426 at 436 per Richardson J.

[195] Shaw above n 8 at 120-1 and at 120 fn 117; Brownlie above n 8 at 42-7 and 49-51.

[196] Mason above n 138 at 24; Donaghue above n 68 at 263; Perry above n 129 at 842; Crawford and Edeson above n 77 at 71; Triggs above n 76 at 377.

[197] Mathew above n 26 at 195; note for example the elisions between treaty and custom evident in Kirby above n 68 at 368-72.

[198] Chow Hung Ching v The King [1948] HCA 37; (1949) 77 CLR 449; Polites v The Commonwealth [1945] HCA 3; (1945) 70 CLR 60; and cf Bosner v La Macchia [1969] HCA 31; (1970) 122 CLR 177.

[199] Mason above n 138 at 24; S Donaghue above n 68 at 264.

[200] Donaghue above n 68 at 264.

[201] Kirby above n 68 at 368; Donaghue above n 68 at 264-5; Allars above n 91 at 238; Shearer above n 65 at 40 fn 25 and 49-50; Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [131] per Merkel J; Commonwealth v Yarmirr [1999] FCA 1668; (1999) 168 ALR 426; at [426] and [457] per Merkel J.

[202] Donaghue above n 68 at 245; Kirby above n 68 at 391; Mathew above n 26 at 197 and 200; S Bouwhuis, "International law by the back door?" (1998) 72 ALJ 794 at 796-7; Perry above n 129 at 848-9.

[203] Donaghue above n 68 at 267.

[204] Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Harris above n 8 at 74-83; Greig above n 8 at 57; Mann above n 76 at 121; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4.

[205] Donaghue above n 68 at 261; cf Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 288 per Mason CJ and Deane J.

[206] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192 at [18] per Wilcox J; at [36] and [57] per Whitlam J; and at [78] and [140]-[141] per Merkel J; cf Brownlie above n 8 at 517; Steiner and Alston above n 26 at 133 and 145-7; Hannikainen above n 26 at 456ff; Sunga above n 26 at 115, 117 and 246; Meron above n 25 at 11 fn 17; Mathew above n 26 at 179 and fn 9; Shearer above n 19 at 49; Harris above n 26 at 836-7.

[207] Donaghue above n 68 at 261; and see Part 3.

[208] Brownlie above n 8 at 515-6; Shaw above n 8 at 97-98; Detter above n 27 at 174; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, ATS 1974 No. 2, Articles 53 and 64.

[209] Note: Kirby above n 68 at 377; Mathew above n 26 at 181 and 201.

[210] Perry above n 129 at 846-7; Bouwhuis above n 202 at 797.

[211] Mathew above n 26 at 194; Kirby above n 68 at 371-2.

[212] Ibid at 195.

[213] Ibid; cf Donaghue above n 68 at 214.

[214] Allars above n 91 at 245ff.

[215] Donaghue above n 68 at 266.

[216] Ibid.

[217] Mason above n 7 at 219.

[218] See: Allars above n 91 at 239.

[219] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621 at 621 (headnote); cf Flynn above n at 63-65; S Peters, "The Genocide Case: Nulyarimma v Thompson" [1999] AILR 233 at 233-4; Mitchell above n 33 at 24.

[220] Ibid.

[221] Ibid.

[222] Ibid.

[223] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [32]-[34] per Wilcox J, [59] per Whitlam J, and [235] per Merkel J; note Peters above n 219 at 242-3.

[224] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 119; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [32] per Wilcox J, [59] per Whitlam J.

[225] Ibid at [186], [193]-[198], [207], [224] and especially [233] and [234] per Merkel J.

[226] Ibid at [18] per Wilcox J; at [36] and [57] per Whitlam J; and at [78] and [140]–[141] per Merkel J.

[227] Ibid at [20].

[228] Ibid at [23].

[229] Ibid; compare Mason above n 7 at 213.

[230] R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No 3) (Pinochet (No 3)) [1999] UKHL 17; [1999] 2 All ER 97.

[231] Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277.

[232] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [36] - [44].

[233] Polyukhovich v Commonwealth [1991] HCA 32; (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 576.

[234] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [52].

[235] Mitchell above n 33 at 33.

[236] Ibid.

[237] Ibid.

[238] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [24].

[239] Ibid at [26].

[240] Ibid.

[241] See for example the discussion in: Polyukhovich v Commonwealth [1991] HCA 32; (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 687-90 per Toohey J.

[242] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [27].

[243] Ibid at [18] per Wilcox J.

[244] See: Polyukhovich v Commonwealth [1991] HCA 32; (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 556 per Brennan J.

[245] Brownlie above n 8 at 42.

[246] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [26]-[27]; cf Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277 at 282.

[247] Ibid at [54].

[248] Ibid at [163]–[165].

[249] Ibid at [163].

[250] Ibid at [163].

[251] Polites v Commonwealth [1945] HCA 3; (1945) 70 CLR 60 at 68 per Latham CJ, at 74 per Rich J, at 77 per Dixon J, at 79 per McTiernan J and at 81 per Williams J; Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J; Kruger and Bray v The Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1 71 per Dawson J and at 87-8 per Toohey J; Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 287-8 per Mason CJ and Deane J and at 315 per McHugh J (only in the case of actual ambiguity).

[252] Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2, Articles 1 and 5.

[253] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [57].

[254] [1973] AC 435.

[255] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [53].

[256] Knuller v Director of Public Prosecutions [1973] AC 435 at 436 (headnote).

[257] Shaw v Director of Public Prosecutions [1961] UKHL 1; [1962] AC 220.

[258] Knuller v Director of Public Prosecutions [1973] AC 435 at 457-8 per Lord Reid, 464-5 per Lord Morris, 490 per Lord Simon, and 496 per Lord Kilbrandon.

[259] Ibid.

[260] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [167].

[261] Ibid at [176].

[262] Ibid at [177].

[263] Ibid at [178].

[264] Ibid at [179].

[265] Ibid at [83]; note also at [88], [89] and [99].

[266] Westland Ltd v Arab Organsiation for Industrialisation [1995] 2 QB 282.

[267] International Tin Council Case [1990] 2 AC 418.

[268] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [108].

[269] Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4; Donaghue above n 68 at 260.

[270] Westland Ltd v Arab Organsiation for Industrialisation [1995] 2 QB 282 at 307-8 and 310; International Tin Council Case [1990] 2 AC 418 at 512 per Lord Oliver.

[271] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [113] and [117].

[272] R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate ex parte Pinochet Ugarte [1998] UKHL 41; [1998] 3 WLR 1456.

[273] Pinochet (No 3) [1999] UKHL 17; [1999] 2 All ER 97.

[274] H Fox, "The Pinochet Case No. 3", (1999) 48 Int and Comp Law Q 687 at 687.

[275] Pinochet (No 3) [1999] UKHL 17; [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 102-4 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson.

[276] Ibid.

[277] C Warbrick, "Extradition Law Aspects of Pinochet 3" 48 Int and Comp Law Q 958 at 959-960; Fox above n 274 at 687.

[278] Fox above n 274 at 701.

[279] Pinochet (No 3) [1999] UKHL 17; [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 114 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson, at 166 per Lord Hutton, at 169 per Lord Saville, at 179 per Lord Millet and at 189-190 per Lord Phillips.

[280] Ibid and at 152 per Lord Hope, when torture is on the scale of a "serious international crime".

[281] Warbrick above n 277 at 960-3; note Pinochet (No 3) [1999] UKHL 17; [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 105-7 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson.

[282] Pinochet (No 3) [1999] UKHL 17; [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 103 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson.

[283] J Hopkins, "Former Head of Foreign State – Extradition – Immunity" (1999) 58 Camb LJ 461 at 461-2; Fox above n 274 at 690 (though Fox first cites the date 1998, this is clearly a misprint); s 134 Criminal Justice Act, 1988 (UK) implementing the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1984, ATS 1989 No. 21.

[284] Fox above n 274 at 689.

[285] Pinochet (No 3) [1999] UKHL 17; [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 175-8.

[286] Burmester above n 20 at 316-7.

[287] Pinochet (No 3) [1999] UKHL 17; [1999] 2 All ER 97 at 108-9 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson, at 152 per Lord Hope, at 164 per Lord Hutton and at 190 per Lord Phillips; cf 178 per Lord Millett.

[288] Ibid at 114 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson, at 121 per Lord Goff, at 164 per Lord Hutton and at 188-9 per Lord Phillips.

[289] Ibid at 155 per Lord Hutton, at 177 per Lord Millet (and note his reference to Re Piracy Jure Gentium at 180) and at 185 per Lord Phillips.

[290] Brownlie above n 8 at 44; Triggs above n 76 at 384-5; Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 121.

[291] Pinochet (No 3) [1999] 2 All ER at 114 per Lord Browne-Wilkinson, at 121 per Lord Goff, at 164 per Lord Hutton and at 188-9 per Lord Phillips.

[292] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [101], though note [133].

[293] Ibid at [126], [129] and [132].

[294] Ibid at [125]-[126] and [132].

[295] Chow Hung Ching v The King [1948] HCA 37; (1949) 77 CLR 449 at 487-8 per McTiernan J.

[296] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [131].

[297] Unless otherwise noted, quotations in (1) to (6) are drawn from: ibid at [132] per Merkel J.

[298] [1938] AC 485.

[299] The same analysis appears in: Flynn above n 3 at 63-65.

[300] Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] 1 QB 529 at 554; cf Mann above n 76 at 124-5.

[301] Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277 at 288 and 296-7; Bassiouni above n 53 at 285.

[302] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [148]-[150].

[303] Attorney General of Israel v Eichmann (1962) 36 ILR 277 at 280, quoting in part Shimshon Palestine Portland Cement Factory Ltd v The Attorney General (1950) 17 ILR 72 per Dinkleblum J, and also referring to West Rand Central Gold Mining Company Limited v The King [1905] 2 KB 391 and The Cristina [1938] AC 485.

[304] Ibid at 292 (emphasis added).

[305] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [160].

[306] Ibid at [138] – [139].

[307] Nulyarimma v Thompson [1999] FCA 1192; (1999) 165 ALR 621; at [181].

[308] Ibid at [183].

[309] Ibid at [184].

[310] Ibid at [193].

[311] Ibid.

[312] Sumner v United Kingdom [1999] SASC 456 at [31]- [32] per Nyland J; Sumner v United Kingdom [1999] SASC 462 at [50]; Thorpe v Kennett [1999] VSC 442 at [46] per Warren J; Buzzacott v Gray [1999] FCA 1525 at [31] and [32] per Von Doussa J; Buzzacott v Morgan (Butterworths Unreported Judgment 1901600); for discussion of some of these cases see: Mitchell above n 33 at 43-4.

[313] Mitchell above n 33 at 44-6; Anti-Genocide Bill 1999 (Cth); see Part 2.

[314] B Galligan, "Australia's Political Culture and Institutional Design" in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994), 55 at 58.

[315] H Charlesworth, "The Australian Reluctance About Rights" in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 21 at 21-2.

[316] Burmester above n 20 at 322-3.

[317] Charlesworth above n 315 at 48.

[318] Ibid at 27.

[319] Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292.

[320] Ibid at 306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J and at 360 per Toohey J.

[321] Ibid at 349.

[322] Ibid at 319-321.

[323] Ibid at 337.

[324] Ibid 373.

[325] Ibid at 311 per Mason CJ and McHugh J, at 337 per Deane J, at 362 per Toohey J and at 374 per Gaudron J; though note Mathew above n 26 at 196.

[326] On the change in legal aid priorities see: S Bronitt, and M Ayers, "Criminal Law and Human Rights" in D Kinley (ed), Human Rights in Australian Law : Principles Practice and Potential (1998) 120 at 122.

[327] Dietrich v The Queen [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 307.

[328] P Alston, "An Australian Bill of Rights: By Design or Default?" in P Alston (ed), Towards an Australian Bill of Rights (1994) 1 at 13.

[329] Ibid; Charlesworth above n 315 at 23; Galligan above n 314 at 56 and 65-6.

[330] Charlesworth above n 315 at 34.

[331] Ibid.

[332] Ibid at 36-8; Rothwell above n 162 at 527.

[333] Charlesworth above n 315 at 26, 32, 33 and 35; Alston above n 328 at 3-4; Kirby above n 176 at 290; Human Rights (Mandatory Sentencing of Juvenile Offenders) Bill 1999, Bills Digest No. 62 1999-2000, Parliamentary Library, http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/bd/1999-2000/2000bd062.htm, at "Caveats"; Donaghue above n 68 at 260; Crawford above n 129 at 331.

[334] Alston above n 328 at 4 and 16; Crawford above n 129 at 331; cf Downer, Alexander, Minister for Foreign Affairs, "Media Release: Government to Review UN Treaty Committees", 30 March 2000, http://www.dfat.gov.au/media/releases/downer/ fa024_2000.html.

[335] Mathew above n 26 at 195.

[336] Charlesworth above n 315 at 27.

[337] Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 288 per Mason CJ and Deane J.

[338] Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd v Commonwealth [1997] HCA 38; (1997) 190 CLR 513 at 657.

[339] Mathew above n 26 at 195.

[340] Alston above n 328 at 7.

[341] Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 41-42 per Brennan J; cf Teoh [1995] HCA 20; (1995) 183 CLR 273 at 288 per Mason CJ and Deane J and 304 per Gaudron J (concurring).

[342] Articles 5, 6 and 7, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, ATS 1951 No. 2; cf Flynn above n 3 at 74-5.

[343] Extradition Act 1988 (Cth), s 19(2)(c); cf Flynn above n 3 at 74 fn 70.

[344] Flynn above n 3 at 74.

[345] Ibid at 78.

[346] Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide 1948, Articles 5 and 6.

[347] See Part 2.

[348] Brownlie above n 8 at 42; Shaw above n 8 at 105-110; Harris above n 8 at 74-83; Greig above n 8 at 57; Mann above n 8 at 121; Erades above n 7 at 665 and 883-4.

[349] See 4.6, above.

[350] As discussed in Parts 2 and 6.

[351] Shearer above n 65 at 38; cf Dixon and McCorquodale above n 24 at 97 and 100.

[352] Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42 per Brennan J.

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