Anthony, Thalia --- "Unmapped Territory: Wage Compensation for Indigenous Cattle Station Workers" [2007] AUIndigLawRw 3; (2007) 11(1) Australian Indigenous Law Review 4
* Faculty of Law, University of Sydney. The author wishes to thank Dr Rosalind Kidd, Mr Stephen Gray, Dr Fleur Johns, Mr Jamie Glister, Professor Chris Cunneen, Mr Luke Taylor, Ms Julia Mansour and the anonymous referees, for their invaluable feedback.
[1] Rosalind Kidd, Stolen Wages – A National Issue, Speech delivered at the Garma Festival, Gulkula, North East Arnhem Land, 9 August 2004, <http://www.griffith.edu.au/centre/cpci/pdf/ros_kidd_garma.pdf> at 11 April 2007. See also, ‘A legacy of deceit and fraud’, Courier-Mail (Brisbane) 6 July 2002, 2.
[2] Loretta de Plevitz, ‘Working for the man: wages lost to Queensland workers ‘under the Act’’ [1996] AboriginalLawB 25; (1996) 3(81) Aboriginal Law Bulletin 4, 4–8; Rosalind Kidd, ‘Abuse of Trust: The Government as Banker in Queensland’ [2003] IndigLawB 48; (2003) 5(26) Indigenous Law Bulletin 13, 13–16; Sanushka Mudaliar ‘Stolen Wages and Fiduciary Duty: A Legal Analysis of Government Accountability to Indigenous Workers in Queensland’ (2003) 8(3) Australian Indigenous Law Review 1, 1–11.
[3] Kidd, above n 1, 2.
[4] [1966] CthArbRp 148; (1966) 113 CAR 651 (‘Equal Wages Case’). This decision of the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission led to the 1968 Pastoral Award when equal wages were effectively introduced.
[5] Anon (1969), ‘Give us Stronger Vehicles and Build Better Roads’, NAT/DEV, 1, 4, 27–29, Charles Darwin University Special Collection (Ephemera).
[6] Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Australian Senate, Unfinished business: Indigenous stolen wages (2006) ‘Terms of Reference’ <http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/committee/legcon_ctte/stolen_wages/tor.htm> at 10 April 2007.
[7] Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Australian Senate, Unfinished business: Indigenous stolen wages (2006) ‘Public Hearings and Transcripts’ <http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/committee/legcon_ctte/stolen_wages/hearings/index.htm> at 13 April 2007.
[8] Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Australian Senate, Unfinished business: Indigenous stolen wages (2006) [6.69]–[6.70] <http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/committee/legcon_ctte/stolen_wages/report/report.pdf> at 13 April 2007.
[9] Ibid, Recommendation 5.
[10] See also, ABC Radio Alice Springs, ‘Indigenous Stolen Wages with Maurie Ryan’, Barry Nicholls, 11 December 2006.
[11] See Andrew Altman, Arguing About Law: An Introduction to Legal Philosophy (1996) 32.
[12] John von Doussa, ‘Launch of Trustees on Trial – recovering the stolen wages by Dr Rosalind Kidd’, Speech delivered at the Brisbane Writers Festival, 14 September 2006 <http://www.humanrights.gov.au/about_the_commission/speeches_president/20060914_trustees_launch.html> at 10 April 2007.
[13] Pursuant to the Welfare Ordinance 1953 (Cth) (gazetted in 1957) which declared ‘full blood’ Indigenous people wards: Russell McGregor, ‘Avoiding ‘Aborigines’: Paul Hasluck and the Northern Territory Welfare Ordinance 1953’ (2005) 51(4) Australian Journal of Politics and History 513, 520.
[14] As recommended by the Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, above n 8, [4.48].
[15] The workers of these employers had their wages mostly placed in government trust accounts: V J White (Secretary, Native Affairs Branch), Aboriginal Trust Account Investigation, 12 June 1940, 4–6; National Archives (Darwin) CRS F1 Item 42/40.
[16] J W Bleakley, The Aborigines and Half–Castes of Central Australia and North Australia 1928, Report to the Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra (1929) 6.
[17] Frank Stevens, Equal Wages for Aborigines: The background to industrial discrimination in the Northern Territory of Australia (1968) 9.
[18] Commonwealth, The Year Book of Australia for 1911 (1912).
[19] Deborah Bird Rose, Hidden Histories: Black Stories from Victoria River Downs, Humbert River and Wave Hill Stations (1991) 81.
[20] Bernard Higgins, Presenting Aborigines in the Pastoral North: Economics, History and Anthropology (Honours Thesis, Australian National University, 1986) 16.
[21] See Rose, above n 19, 156.
[22] Ann McGrath, ‘Born in the Cattle’: Aborigines in cattle country (1987) 52.
[23] Baldwin Spencer, Preliminary Report on the Aboriginals of the Northern Territory, Department of External Affairs, Melbourne (1913) 43.
[24] Michael Hess, ‘Black and Red: the Pilbara pastoral workers’ strike, 1946’ (1994) 18(1) Aboriginal History 65, 66.
[25] Bleakley, above n 16, 7.
[26] Charlie Schultz and Darrell Lewis, Beyond the Big Run: Station Life in Australia’s last Frontier (1994) 126.
[27] C L A Abbott, ‘Report of Debates’ in Conference of Representatives of Missions, Societies, and Associations Interested in the Welfare of Aboriginals to Consider the Report and Recommendations submitted to the Commonwealth Government by J W Bleakley Esq, Department of the Interior, Melbourne (1929) 20–21, National Archives (Canberra) CRS A1 Item 33/8782.
[28] Paul Hasluck, Shades of Darkness: Aboriginal Affairs 1925–1965 (1988) 52.
[29] Peter d’Abbs, Interview with Harry Giese (Oral history transcript, 1994) Northern Territory Archives Service, NTRS 226 TS 755 1994.
[30] See, eg, Don Dickson, Interview with Gordon Sweeney (Oral history transcript, 1980) Northern Territory Archives Service, NTRS 222 TS (Box 20); Tony Austin, ‘Looking Back’ in Val Dixon (ed) Looking Back (1988), 92.
[31] Rose, above n 19, 73.
[32] South Australia Legislative Council, Report of the 1899 Select Committee of the Legislative Council on The Aborigines Bill: Minutes of Evidence, Parliamentary Paper No 77 (1899) 83.
[33] See Rose, above n 19, 137.
[34] Mary Durack, Kings in Grass Castles (1962) 315–16.
[35] The Northern Territory was governed by South Australia between 1882 and 1910.
[36] Peter Donovan, A Land Full of Possibilities: A History of South Australia’s Northern Territory (1981) 184.
[37] Tim Rowse, ‘Were You Ever Savages?’ Aboriginal Insiders and Pastoralists’ Patronage’ (1987) 58(2) Oceania 81, 84.
[38] Jeannie Gunn, We of the Never-Never (1990) 185.
[39] Thalia Anthony, ‘Postcolonial Feudal Hauntings of Northern Australian Cattle Stations’ (2003) 7 Law Text Culture 277.
[40] Aboriginals Ordinance 1911 (Cth) s 8(1); Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) s 22(1).
[41] Harry Giese, Interview with Dr C E (Mick) Cook (Oral history transcript, 1981, 9) Northern Territory Archives Service NTRS 226 TS179.
[42] Austin, above n 30, 92.
[43] Aboriginals Ordinance 1911 (Cth) s 8(1); Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) s 23(2).
[44] Aboriginals Ordinance 1911 (Cth) s 8(1).
[45] Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) s 26(1).
[46] d’Abbs, above n 29, 2.
[47] Ann McGrath ‘Modern Stone–Age Slavery’: Images of Aboriginal Labour and Sexuality’ in Ann McGrath and Kay Saunders (eds) Aboriginal Workers (1995) 41, 41–42.
[48] Ibid.
[49] This did not include ‘half-caste females employed as domestics’ who received six shillings; Aboriginal drovers ‘travelling with stock’ who received 24 shillings; and, Aboriginal drovers ‘travelling with plant’ who received 16 shillings: Aboriginal Trust Account (1938) National Archives (Darwin) F1 38/17.
[50] Margaret Kowald and Ross Johnston, You Can’t Make it Rain: the story of the North Australian Pastoral Company 1877–1991 (1992) 74.
[51] Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, The history of pastoral co-existence, Native Title Report (1997) 13 <http://austlii.law.uts.edu.au/au/other/IndigLRes/1997/4/2.html> at 10 April 2007.
[52] McGrath, above n 22, 138.
[53] John Hunter, ‘Cattle Station Wages’ (1974) 43(3) Maningrida Mirage 1, 2.
[54] R K McCaffery (1953), Maintenance Payment to Dependants of Aboriginal Employees on Pastoral Properties, National Archives (Darwin) CRS F1 1953/307.
[55] White, above n 15, 5.
[56] Giese, above n 41, 9.
[57] Ibid 10. This was enacted on 29 June 1933 under Regulation 12 of the 1918 Ordinance: M M Culnane (Department of the Interior) Aboriginal Trust Account, 4 May 1951, Memorandum No 45/1/1544, 1, National Archives (Darwin) F1 48/67.
[58] Giese, above n 41, 60.
[59] Winifred Wilson, Dietary Survey of Aboriginals in the Northern Territory, Commonwealth Department of Health (1952) 106.
[60] Mary Stephenson, Interview with Mr E C (Ted) Evans (Oral history transcript, 1982, 30) Northern Territory Archives Service NTRS 266 TS46 (Box 3).
[61] Higgins, above n 20, 5.
[62] Report of the Darwin Conference: North Australian Workers Union and Australian Engineering Union and Northern Territory Administration, Alice Springs (1954), National Archives (Darwin) NTAC 1976/137.
[63] Colin MacLeod, Patrol in the Dreamtime (1997).
[64] C R Lambert, Employment and Payment of Aborigines in the Northern Territory, National Archives (Canberra) CRS F1 1953/307.
[65] Rose, above n 19, 155.
[66] Stephenson, above n 60, 30–31.
[67] Ibid 22.
[68] Ibid.
[69] Ibid 23. On the Welfare Branch’s failure to follow up allegations of non-payment of workers at Vestey’s stations see Phillip Knightley, The Vestey Affair (1981) 143.
[70] Henry Reynolds, Black Pioneers: how Aboriginal and Islander people helped build Australia (2000) 10.
[71] V J White (Director of Native Affairs), Aboriginal Trust Account (Memorandum to the Acting District Officer, Alice Springs, 8 June, 1939) 3, National Archives (Darwin) F1 42/40; Aboriginal Trust Account, above n 49.
[72] Mudoon (Mounted Constable and Protector, Stuart Police Station, NT), Authority to spend moneys from Trust Funds of Aboriginal Drovers – George, Silas, Willie (1) Willie (2) (Memorandum to Sergeant Lovegrove, Officer in Charge Police, Stuart, and forwarded to The Chief Protector of Aboriginals, Darwin, 2 July 1932) National Archives (Darwin) F68, A8.
[73] See, eg, Stephen Gray, History, Law and Indigenous Poverty: the ‘Stolen Wages’ issue in the Northern Territory (draft PhD thesis, Monash University).
[74] Giese, above n 41, 12.
[75] McGrath, above n 47, 42.
[76] McGrath, above n 22, 139.
[77] Ibid.
[78] ‘Yarrum’, The Injured Half–Caste, Northern Standard (Northern Territory), 5 September 1935 in Peter Read, A Social History of the Northern Territory (1979) 37.
[79] Ibid.
[80] McGregor, above n 13, 520.
[81] F T Askins, Dark-Night. What of the Dawn: History Story of Australian (Northern Territory) Natives, 1605–1965 (1965) 62, Mortlock Archives, Adelaide (D5135 (Lit Ms)).
[82] Gray, above n 73, 37.
[83] d’Abbs, above n 29, 11.
[84] McGregor, above n 13, 513.
[85] See Gray, above n 73, 47.
[86] H J Goodes (Director-General, Melbourne) Child Endowment for Aboriginal Children on Cattle Stations in the Northern Territory (Memorandum to the Minister, 17 March 1960) National Archives (Canberra) A885, B456, Part 2.
[87] A S (The Director of Social Services), Proposals to change (i) the method of payment of pensions in respect of aboriginal pensioners on Settlements in Northern Territory (ii) the method of payment of child endowment to aboriginal endowees on pastoral properties in Northern Territory, Memorandum to L. L. Gillespie (Assistant NT Administrator), 20 December 1962, National Archives (Canberra) A885/5, 456 Part 2.
[88] L L Gillespie (Assistant NT Administrator), Child Endowment for Aboriginal Children on Cattle Stations in the Northern Territory, (Memorandum to the Director, Department of Social Services, Adelaide, 31 October 1962) National Archives (Canberra) A885, B456 Part 2.
[89] Ibid.
[90] Minister for Social Services, House of Representatives Notice Paper No. 38 (Response to Question 84, 27 August 1959) National Archives (Canberra) A885/5; 456 Part 2.
[91] See Rose, above n 19, 154.
[92] L W Loveless (Director of Social Services), All subjects: Payment of Child Endowment in respect of Aboriginal Children (Memorandum to Director-General, Department of Social Services Melbourne, 12 March 1952) National Archives (Canberra) A885, B456 Part 2.
[93] L W Loveless (Director of Social Services), NT Natives (Memorandum to Director-General, Department of Social Services Melbourne, 24 July, 1952) National Archives (Canberra) A885, B456 Part 2.
[94] See Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) s 5(1)(f).
[95] Northern Territory Welfare Ordinance 1953 (Cth).
[96] Monica McMahon, Colonial Domination: Aborigines in the Northern Territory 1911–1934. Background to Attitudes and Policies (Honours Thesis, Australian National University, 1977) 25.
[97] See, eg, Stephenson, above n 60, 42; Report of the Aborigines Welfare Board for Year ending 30th June, 1949, 4–5, National Archives (Darwin) NTAC1976/137/0.
[98] Stephenson, above n 60, 42.
[99] Ronald Berndt and Catherine Berndt, End of an Era: Aboriginal Labour in the Northern Territory (1987) 18.
[100] See Higgins, above n 20, 10.
[101] Ibid.
[102] Rosalind Kidd, Hard Labour, Stolen Wages (forthcoming, 2007), 3.
[103] Stephenson, above n 60, 37–38.
[104] Ibid 39.
[105] Wilson, above n 59, 2.
[106] See Jackie Huggins, ‘Firing on in the Mind: Aboriginal Women Domestic Servants in the Inter–War Years’ (1988) 13(2) Hecate: The Counter-Bicentenary Issue 5, 9.
[107] See Rose, above n 19, 139–40.
[108] Stephenson, above n 60, 30.
[109] Stephenson, above n 60, 19.
[110] Ibid.
[111] Peter Sing and Pearl Ogden, From Humpy to Homestead: the biography of Sabu (1992) 59; Stephenson, above n 60, 30–31.
[112] Pete Thomas, The Beef Rustlers: What Everyone Should Know about the Meat Industry (1968) 15.
[113] Bill Bunbury, It’s not the money it’s the land: Aboriginal stockmen and the equal wages case (2002) 84.
[114] F P Shepherd, General Report on the Investigation of Pastoral Leases in the Northern Territory 1933–1935, Presented to the Federal Department of the Interior, Canberra (1935), 1 (Schedule R: Native Labour) National Archives (Darwin) NN F987.
[115] V G Carrington (Acting Director of Native Affairs, Native Affairs Branch, NT Administration), Report on Aboriginal Employment to the Administrator (Darwin, 10 October 1945, 1, 2) Noel Butlin Archives (Canberra) 42/12.
[116] Stephenson, above n 60, 31.
[117] Ibid 37.
[118] M M Culnane (Department of the Interior), Aboriginal Trust Account (Memorandum No. 45/1/1544, 1, 4 May 1951) National Archives (Darwin) F1 48/67.
[119] Bill Thorpe, ‘Aboriginal employment and unemployment: colonised labour’ in Claire Williams (ed), Beyond Industrial Sociology: The work of men and women (1992) 88, 90–91.
[120] d’Abbs, above n 29, 3; Askins, above n 81, 3.
[121] See Gray, above n 73, 16.
[122] Ibid 18.
[123] Dexter Daniels Report, 20 March 1966, Miscellaneous Workers’ Union, PAC 34, Correspondence, Box 32, NTAS, Darwin in Gray, above n 73, 18.
[124] Commonwealth, Royal Commission Into Aboriginal Deaths In Custody, Report Of The Inquiry Into The Death Of Kwementyaye Price (1990) 7 <http://austlii.law.uts.edu.au/au/other/IndigLRes/rciadic/individual/brm_kp/BRM_KP.RTF> at 10 April 2007.
[125] Ibid.
[126] White, above n 15, Appendix 11.
[127] Wages of Aboriginals and Half-Castes – Northern Territory, National Archives (Canberra) A1/15 1938/329.
[128] Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) s 5(1)(b).
[129] Giese, above n 41, 60.
[130] Wilson, above n 59, 5.
[131] Matt Savage, Boss Drover (1971) 12.
[132] Ann McGrath, Interview with Noel and Dorothy Hall (Oral history transcript, 1978) Northern Territory Archives Service, NTRS 226, TS230 (Box 14).
[133] Lyn Riddett, Kine, Kin and Country: the Victoria River District of the Northern Territory 1911–1966 (1990) 115.
[134] J W Bleakley, Report of Debates: Conference of Representatives of Missions, Societies, and Associations Interested in the Welfare of Aboriginals to Consider, Report and Recommendations submitted to the Commonwealth Government, 12 April 1933, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Records: MS 1225.
[135] Spencer, above n 23, 40.
[136] J H Sexton, Report by a Protector of Aboriginals on his Recent Visit to Central Australia (13 June, 1930) 21, Mortlock Library Archives (Adelaide) SRG 139/1; Series 1, No. 169; Stephenson, above n 60, 37.
[137] Cited in C M T Cooke, The Status of Aboriginal Women in Australia 1930 (8 July, 1932), report prepared for the Department of Home Affairs, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 13, Mortlock Library Archives (Adelaide) SRG 139/1/195.
[138] Thompson v Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd [1996] HCA 38; (1996) 186 CLR 574, 580–81.
[139] See, eg, Morton v Douglas Homes Ltd [1984] 2 NZLR 548, 612–14.
[140] Baxter v Obacelo Pty Ltd [2001] HCA 66 (Unreported, Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne and Callinan JJ, 15 November 2001) [25] (Gleeson CJ and Callinan J).
[141] Ibid [49].
[142] [2003] HCA 4; (2003) 212 CLR 511 (‘Lepore’).
[143] Lepore [2003] HCA 4; (2003) 212 CLR 511, 535.
[144] Stephenson, above n 60, 37.
[145] Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission, Transcripts of Proceedings in the matter of the Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904–1965 and of The Cattle Station Industry (Northern Territory) Award, 1951, No’s 397 and 553 of 1950 (1965), 753.
[146] The Vestey Group leased an area of pastoral land in northern Australia that was larger than Tasmania, included the large stations of Wave Hill and Helen Springs in the Northern Territory: Knightley, above n 69, 133, 152; LJ Hooker owned Victoria River Downs, Rosewood, and Legune Stations: ibid 39.
[147] Stephenson, above n 60, 19.
[148] The Vestey Group currently operates from England and runs a number of subsidiary companies, including an international food product business and significant cattle ranching interests in Brazil and Venezuela. Its current holdings are estimated at £650 million. Lord Sam Vestey, the current Chairman of the Vestey Group, is the great grandson of the first Lord Vestey who built the cattle empire in northern Australia. See Company Information, Angliss International <http://www.angliss – international.com/vesteygroup.htm> (10 April 2007); Classic Fine Foods
<http://www.classicfinefoods.com/> at 10 April 2007.
[149] See Farmer-Paellman v FleetBoston, No. CV–02–1862 (EDNY, 2002). See generally, ‘Slave descendents to sue Lloyd’s’, BBC News (UK), 29 March 2004 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3578863.stm> at 10 April 2007. Cf the experience of Holocaust survivors in acquiring reparations from Swiss Banks. In 1997 Swiss Banks gave $200 million, pursuant to the production of a list of thousands of people with accounts. They have promised a further $1.25 billion: Tasha Wilson, Holocaust Reparations (1999) Infoplease <http://www.infoplease.com/spot/holocaust1.html> at 17 April 2007. See also, Volkswagen’s admission that it used 15,000 slaves during WWII, and its announcement that it plans to set up a fund to compensate these workers: Ibid
[150] Keith N Hylton, ‘Slavery and Tort Law’ (2004) 84 Boston University Law Review 1209.
[151] Pyrenees Shire Council v Day [1998] HCA 3; (1998) 192 CLR 330, 422 (Kirby J).
[152] Cubillo v Commonwealth [2000] FCA 1084; [2000] 174 ALR 97, 470 (O’Loughlin J).
[153] Perre v Apand Pty Ltd [1999] HCA 36; (1999) 198 CLR 180.
[154] Sharman v Evans [1977] HCA 8; (1977) 138 CLR 563, 599 (Murphy J).
[155] Carson v John Fairfax & Sons Ltd [1993] HCA 31; (1993) 178 CLR 44, 54–56 (Mason CJ, Deane, Dawson and Gaudron JJ).
[156] Perre v Apand Pty Ltd [1999] HCA 36; (1999) 198 CLR 180 (‘Perre’).
[157] Perre [1999] HCA 36; (1999) 198 CLR 180, 203–37 (McHugh J).
[158] See, eg, Woolcock Street Investments Pty Ltd v CDG Pty Ltd [2004] HCA 16; (2004) 216 CLR 515, 530.
[159] Ibid.
[160] Ibid 531. The Court referred to Jane Stapleton ‘Comparative Economic Loss: Lessons from Case-Law-Focused ‘Middle Theory’’ (2002) 50 UCLA Law Review 531, 558–59 in making this assertion.
[161] Tim Rowse, White Flour, White Power: From Rations to Citizenship in Central Australia (1998) 5.
[162] A R Driver, Correspondence to the Secretary, Department of the Interior, 6 July 1949, National Archives (Darwin) CA1070, F1 43/24.
[163] Hasluck above n 28, 53.
[164] Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] A C 532.
[165] See, eg, the plight of Indigenous workers at Brunette Station: McGrath, above n 22, 41. See also C M Berndt, ‘A Northern Territory Problem: Aboriginal Labour in a Pastoral Area’ (1948), reproduced in Frank Stevens, above n 17, 18–19 for a discussion of the conditions under which Indigenous workers existed on Vestey’s Victoria River Downs Station. See further, Department of Health, ‘Provisional Ration Scales for the Feeding of Aboriginals: issued for the guidance of managers of missions, government institutions, and cattle stations in northern Australia 1952 Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra: Surveys – Missions and Stations – Aboriginal Affairs Settlement – Phillip Creek 1960–61’, Medical Report on Phillip Creek, 15 September, 1955, by Sgd E. Kettle for NT Health Dept, 1, National Archives (Darwin) E51 1960/661.
[166] Perre [1999] HCA 36; (1999) 198 CLR 180, 193 (Gleeson CJ). See also, Justice Michael McHugh, ‘Neighbourhood, Proximity and Reliance’ in Paul D Finn (ed) Essays on Torts (1989) 5.
[167] [2002] HCA 54; (2002) 211 CLR 540 (‘Barclay Oysters’).
[168] Stephenson, above n 60, 39.
[169] Ibid 42.
[170] Ibid 35–36.
[171] Ibid 30.
[172] Ibid 37.
[173] Ibid.
[174] Ibid.
[175] Spencer, above n 23, 47.
[177] Ibid [438].
[178] Ibid 23.
[179] This is a necessary requirement for a government employee to have fulfilled their duty of care: Harrison v National Coal Board (1951) AC 639, 688 (Lord Reid).
[180] Carrington, above n 115, 3.
[181] ‘Treatment of Aborigines: Minister to Visit NT Again – Personal Inquiry’, The Advertiser (Adelaide), 29 July 1933, 14.
[182] March v E & MH Stramare Pty Ltd [1991] HCA 12; (1991) 171 CLR 506, 522 (Deane J).
[183] March v E & MH Stramare Pty Ltd [1991] HCA 12; (1991) 171 CLR 506 (‘Stramare’).
[184] Ibid 523–25 (Deane J).
[185] Ibid 516 (Mason CJ).
[186] Dickson, above n 30, 26.
[187] O’Connor v SP Bray Ltd [1937] HCA 18; (1937) 56 CLR 464, 478 (Dixon J).
[188] Ibid.
[189] Ibid, 486–87 (Evatt and McTiernan JJ).
[190] Harold Luntz and David Hambly, Torts: Cases and Commentary (5th ed, 2002) 625.
[191] O’Connor v SP Bray Ltd [1937] HCA 18; (1937) 56 CLR 464, 477 (Dixon J).
[192] The 1918 Ordinance, the 1933 Ordinance, and the Wards’ Ordinance.
[193] See: R v Deputy Governor of Parkhurst Prison; Ex p Hague [1992] 1 AC 58, 168–71 (Lord Jauncey).
[194] Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) s 5(1)(f).
[195] Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) s 6(3).
[196] McGregor, above n 13, 552.
[197] Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) s 57: ‘Any action or other proceedings against any person for the recovery of wages due to an aboriginal or half-caste, who is or has been employed by that person, or for the breach of an agreement made with an aboriginal or half-caste, may be instituted and carried on by, or in the name of, any Protector authorised in that behalf by the Administrator’.
[198] Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 (Cth) s 24(1); Wards’ Employment Ordinance 1960 (Cth).
[199] Cubillo v Commonwealth [2000] FCA 1084; (2000) 174 ALR 97 (‘Cubillo’).
[200] Cubillo [2000] FCA 1084; (2000) 174 ALR 97, 281(O’Loughlin J).
[201] Jennifer Clarke, ‘Case notes: Cubillo v Commonwealth’ [2001] MelbULawRw 7; (2001) 25(1) Melbourne University Law Review 218, 272.
[202] Stephenson, above n 60, 30–31.
[203] See, eg, Acting Director of Native Affairs, Carrington’s refusal to accept that the treatment of Indigenous workers was so inconsistent with the requirements of the 1933 Ordinance as to warrant cancellation of a licence, despite acknowledging that accommodation and sanitary provisions did not meet the requirements under the Regulations: Carrington, above n 115, 2–3.
[204] The Federal Court under s 39B of the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth) has original jurisdiction with respect to any matter in which mandamus is sought against Commonwealth officers.
[205] R v Blakeley; Ex parte Association of Architects, Engineers, Surveyors & Draughtsmen of Australia [1950] HCA 40; (1950) 82 CLR 54.
[206] Re Williams and Town of Brampton (1908) 17 OLR 398.
[207] See Deputy Commissioner of Taxation v Ganke [1975] 1 NSWLR 252; Re O’Reilly; Ex parte Australena Investments Pty Ltd (1983) 58 ALJR 36.
[208] See R v Tower Hamlets London BC; Ex parte Kayne-Levenson [1975] QB 431.
[209] J D Heydon & P L Loughlan, Equity and Trusts (5th ed 1997) 207.
[210] Ibid [1284].
[211] Ibid.
[212] Mabo v State of Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1.
[213] Ibid 60 (Brennan J); 228 (Deane J); 203 (Toohey J).
[214] Nor was such a breach found in Kruger v Commonwealth [1997] HCA 27; (1997) 190 CLR 1.
[215] Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission, above n 145, 749.
[216] Chan v Zacharia [1984] HCA 36; (1984) 154 CLR 178, 198 (Deane J).
[217] R Marsh (1954), Maintenance of Aboriginal Dependants on Pastoral Leases (Memorandum No 51/1634, 1, National Archives (Darwin) A452/54, 1955/303.
[218] Askins, above n 81, 58.
[219] See, eg, ‘Developing North Support For Proposals Pastoralist’ Claim’, 26 January, 1938, National Archives (Adelaide), B300/2, 7751/1 (Payne Investigation Committee, NT, newspaper cuttings); C R Lambert (Secretary, Department of External Territories) Maintenance of Aboriginal Dependants on Pastoral Leases (Memorandum to the Minister, No 51/1634, 12 May 1954, 1) at National Archives (Canberra) A452/54, 1955/303.
[220] J C Genders (Aboriginal Protection League) in Report of Debates: Conference of Representatives of Missions, Societies, and Associations Interested in the Welfare of Aboriginals to Consider the Report and Recommendations submitted to the Commonwealth Government by J W Bleakley Esq (Unpublished, Transcribed by the Commonwealth Attorney-General’s Department, Melbourne, 12 April 1933), National Archives (Canberra), File No CRS A1 33/8782, 24.
[221] Mudaliar, above n 2, [5]; Rosalind Kidd, Trustees on Trial (2006), 45.
[222] A constructive trust is imposed by law where it would be unconscionable for a person to deny another’s equitable claim and irrespective of the intention of the parties: Muschinski v Dodds [1985] HCA 78; (1985) 160 CLR 583, 620.
[223] Stephenson Nominees Pty Ltd v Official Receiver in Bankruptcy (1987) 76 ALR 485, 501–6.
[224] Lyn Riddett, Aboriginal Employment in the Pastoral Industry (NT 1930–66) (1985) 10.
[225] Slavery Convention, opened for signature 25 September 1926 LNTS 60 (entered into force 9 March 1927). Although not ratified by Australia until 1953, the Convention prohibited slavery conditions and the owning and trading of people under Art 1. See R Henderson, Interview with Mrs Daisy Bates (The Australian Broadcasting Commission, Sydney, 1941) Mortlock Archives OHH 543; Alison Holland, ‘Feminism, Colonialism and Aboriginal Workers: An Anti-Slavery Crusade’ (1995) 69 Special Issue of Labour History: Aboriginal Workers 52–64.
[226] ‘‘Conditions of Slavery’: Alleged Treatment of N.T. Aborigines’, The Advertiser (Adelaide), 30 May 1933, 11.
[227] Convention concerning the Creation of Minimum Wage-Fixing Machinery, ILC No. 26 (entered into force 14 June 1930).
[228] GA Res 217A(III) (10 December 1948).
[229] Hurst Hannum, ‘The Status and Future of the Customary International Law of Human Rights: The Status of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in National and International Law’ (1996) 25 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 287, 319–25.
[230] Ibid 323.
[231] Convention (No 29) Concerning Forced Labour, opened for signature 28 June 1930, 39 UNTS 55 (entered into force 1 May 1932) (‘Forced Labour Convention’). Australia ratified the Forced Labour Convention on 2 January 1932. In 1960 Australia ratified the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, opened for signature 25 June 1957 320 UNTS 291 (entered into force 17 January 1959). The Abolition of Forced Labour Convention contains stricter provisions by condemning any forced labour as a means of labour discipline, punishment, workforce mobilisation for economic development, and racial discrimination: Art 1(a)–(e).
[232] Forced Labour Convention arts 1 and 4(2).
[233] Forced Labour Convention art 2(2).
[234] Forced Labour Convention art 14(1).
[235] Forced Labour Convention art 14(5).
[236] Forced Labour Convention art 15(1).
[237] Forced Labour Convention art 16(2).
[238] This includes the 2005 successful ACTU complaint to the ILO that the Building and Construction Industry Improvement Act 2005 (Cth) breaches ILO Conventions on union rights to freely associate and collectively bargain. See Chris White, ‘Workchoices: removing the choice to strike’ (2005) 56 Journal of Australian Political Economy 66, 67–68.
[239] On the role of the North Australian Workers’ Union see Ian G Sharp and Colin M Tatz (eds) Aborigines in the Economy (1966).
[240] International Labour Organization Constitution, art 24 <http://www.ilo.org/public/english/about/iloconst.htm#a24> at 16 April 2007.
[241] Trail Smelter Arbitration (United States of America v Canada) (1939) 33 AJIL 182.
[242] Rainbow Warrior Arbitration (New Zealand v France) (1990) 82 ILR 500.
[243] Yeager v Islamic Republic of Iran (1987) 17 Iran–USCTR 104. See also, Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, in Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Fifty–third Session, UN GAOR, 56th Sess, Supp No 10 at 43, UN Doc A/56/10 (2001) <http://www.un.org/law/ilc> at 10 April 2007 (‘ILC Draft Articles’). The ILC Draft Articles represent the articulation of customary international law: James Crawford, ‘The ILC’s Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts: A Retrospect’ (2002) 96 American Journal of International Law 874, 890.
[244] Neer Claim (USA v Mexico) (1926) 21 American Journal of International Law 555. See also ILC Draft Articles, above n 243, art 39.
[245] Youmans v Mexico 21 AJIL 571 (1927); ILC Draft Articles, above n 243, art 7.
[246] Elettronica Sicula SpA (ELSI) (Unites States of America v Italy) [1989] ICJ Rep 15, 42 [50].
[247] See Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts with commentaries (2001) 305 [3] <http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/commentaries/9_6_2001.pdf> at 10 April 2007 (‘ILC Draft Articles with commentaries’).
[248] Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v Australia) (Preliminary Objections) [1992] ICJ Rep 240.
[249] Ibid 253–55.
[250] Ibid, 253–54.
[251] Ibid 255.
[252] ILC Draft Articles, above n 243, art 45(b).
[253] ILC Draft Articles with commentaries, above n 247, 309 [6].
[254] Stevenson, UNRIAA, vol. IX (1903), 385; Gentini, UNRIAA, vol. X (1903), 557.
[255] Tagliaferro, UNRIAA, vol. X (1903) 592, 593.
[256] ILC Draft Articles with commentaries, above n 247, 311 [11].
[257] International Labour Organization, ILO’s Representations and Complaints Procedures ILOLEX: database on International Labour Standards (1998) <http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/art2426e.htm> at 10 April 2007.
[258] ILC Draft Articles, above n 243, arts 31, 35. The Draft Articles were recognised by the International Court of Justice in Gabčíkovo-Nagyamaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia) [1997] ICJ Reports 7.
[259] For example, in response to a November 1992 finding by the ILO that the legal requirement for unions to have at least 10,000 workers in order to be registered under the federal system could ‘unduly influence workers’ free choice of unions’, the Government repealed the relevant legislative provision under the Industrial Relations Act 1988 (Cth) on 16 December 1993. See, eg, Parties to the Award (1994) Australian Trade Union Association <http://www.atua.org.au/ptta/014.html> at 10 April 2007. See also, Complaint against the Government of Australia presented by the Confederation of Australian Industry and the International Organisation of Employers Report No 284, Case No 1559, Vol LXXV Series B, No 3 (1992) International Labour Organization <http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/newcountryframeE.htm> at 16 April 2007.
[260] An example of this is the Federal Government’s rejection of the ILO’s Commission on Freedom of Association’s recommendations in March 2000 regarding Australia’s labour, in particular the Workplace Relations Act 1996 (Cth) and the Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth). See, eg, Complaint against the Government of Australia presented by the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, the International Transport Workers’ Federation, the Australian Council of Trade Unions and the Maritime Union of Australia, Report No 320, Case N. 1963, Vol LXXXIII, 2000, Series B, No 1 (2001) International Labour Organization <http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/newcountryframeE.htm> at 10 April 2007. The Government responded by stating that the ILO’s recommendations ‘reflect[ed] an inadequate understanding of Australian law’: see Peter Reith (Minister for Employment, Workplace Relations and Small Business), ILO Freedom Of Association Complaint (2000) Office of Employment and Workplace Relations Media Centre <http://mediacentre.dewr.gov.au/mediacentre/AllReleases/2000/March/IloFreedonOfAssociationComplaint.htm> at 10 April 2007.
[261] Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, above n 8, [8.28]. <http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/committee/legcon_ctte/stolen_wages/report/report.pdf> at 10 April 2007.
[262] ‘A Personal Story – Stolen Wages Campaigner Yvonne Butler’, Koori Mail (Brisbane), 1 March 2006.
[263] See, eg, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, ‘Indigenous leaders split over Queensland Government’s compensation offer’, ABC News, 8 June 2002; Australian Broadcasting Corporation, ‘Queensland Government rejects Indigenous stolen wages claim’, ABC News 30 September 2003; Australian Broadcasting Corporation, ‘Another Indigenous community rejects compo offer’, ABC News, 21 June 2002.
[264] Andrew West, ‘$500m in Wages Stolen: Aborigines say compo offers are not enough’, Sun Herald (Sydney) 11 January 2004, 25.
[265] Ibid.
[266] [1996] HREOC 28 [209].
[267] Scott McDougall, ‘A Certain Commonality: Discriminating against the discriminated in the compensation of Queensland’s underpaid workers’ [2002] IndigLawB 5; (2002) 5(14) Indigenous Law Bulletin 11, 14.
[268] Ibid.
[269] Ibid.
[270] See, eg, ‘Panel ‘a delaying tactic’’’, Manly Daily (Sydney) 12 May 2004, 11; ‘Carr says sorry over missing wages for Aborigines’, ABC Message Stick: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders Online, 5 May 2004 <http://www.abc.net.au/message/news/stories/ms_news_1101877.htm> at 10 April 2007.
[271] Zoe Craven, Fact Sheet: ‘Stolen Wages’ and Entitlements: Aboriginal Trust Funds in New South Wales, Indigenous Law Centre (Faculty of Law, UNSW), August 2004, 4. This criticism is set apart from the unequivocal support of the NSW Scheme by the Senate Inquiry, as reflected in its recommendations that other states and territories model their schemes on NSW compensation scheme: above n 8, Recommendations 4 [8.26(a)(ii)] and 5 [8.27(c)].
[272] Aileen Teo, ‘Stolen Wages Update: Establishment of the NSW Aboriginal Trust Fund Repayment Scheme’ [2005] IndigLawB 12; (2005) 6(9) Indigenous Law Bulletin 12, 13.
[273] Rosalind Kidd, above n 221, 127, quoting Pilmer v The Duke Group Ltd (in liq) [2001] HCA 31 (Unreported, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne and Callinan JJ, 31 May 2001).
[274] Native American Rights Fund, Individual Indian Money (IIM) Accounts Cobell v Babbitt: Fact Sheet for IIM Account Holders and Other Individual Indian Trust Beneficiaries <http://www.narf.org/cases/iimgeninfo.htm> at 10 April 2007.
[275] Kidd, above n 221, 45.
[276] Teo, above n 272, 13.
[277] Fiona Kennedy and Leisa Scott, ‘Black elders win payback for wage racism’, The Australian (Sydney), 3 October 1996, 5.
[278] Sean Brennan and Zoe Craven, ‘Eventually they get it all…’ Government Management of Aboriginal Trust Money in New South Wales (2006) 60–61.
[279] The New South Wales government has attached the ‘greatest reliance’ on archival records of the Aboriginal Protection and Welfare Boards: see, eg, Submission to the Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs Committee, Australian Senate, Canberra, 92 (NSW Government) <http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/committee/legcon_ctte/stolen_wages/submissions/sub92.pdf> at 10 April 2007.
[280] Jorge Martin, ‘Venezuela Announces War Against “Latifundios”’ (2005), Venezuelanalysis.com <http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/articles.php?artno=1351> at 10 April 2007.
[281] Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, above n 8, [8.27].